{"id":2581,"date":"2021-09-19T18:45:55","date_gmt":"2021-09-19T23:45:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/abudinen.com\/blog\/?p=2581"},"modified":"2021-09-19T18:47:24","modified_gmt":"2021-09-19T23:47:24","slug":"top-ten-discoveries","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/abudinen.com\/blog\/2021\/09\/19\/top-ten-discoveries\/","title":{"rendered":"Top Ten Discoveries"},"content":{"rendered":"\n\n\n\n\nRelated to Abraham JULY 16, 2021 BRYAN WINDLE\n\n\n\nAbraham was the first and greatest of the Hebrew patriarchs; his story unfolds over 15 chapters in the book of Genesis (from Gen. 11:26-Gen. 25:8).\u00a0 The Lord called him out of his own country to a new land and promised to bless the earth through him (Gen. 12:1-3).\n\n\n\nIn our next top ten list, we\u2019ll look at the top ten discoveries in biblical archaeology related to Abraham. Archaeological evidence is almost always fragmentary and incomplete, especially the father back in time one looks. That said, there are numerous finds which demonstrate that the patriarchal narratives of Scripture accurately reflect the time period in which they are set.\n\n\n\nAccording to conventional chronology which interprets the biblical data (1 Kings 6:1; Ex. 12:40-41; Gen. 47:9; Gen. 25:26; Gen. 21:5) in a straightforward way, Abraham (then known as Abram) was born ca. 2166 BC.1 If this is correct, Abraham was born in the Intermediate Bronze Age, but lived most of his life in the Middle Bronze Age, which began ca. 2100 BC.2 Other Bible scholars interpret the numerical date in an honorific way, rather than as literal base-10 numbers, and believe Abraham lived later in the Middle Bronze II period (ca. 1900-1550).3\n\n\n\nHere, for the most part, I\u2019ve chosen items that would be generally agreed upon by both groups of scholars, regardless of their chronology. Thus, I have not included finds like Tall el-Hammam4, whose [...x]<\/span>
identity is heavily dependent on one\u2019s chronology (some believe it is biblical Sodom, others do not).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Here then are the top ten sites and finds in biblical archaeology that related to Abraham.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

10. City of Ur<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
This map shows Abraham\u2019s travels from the northern Ur to Haran and onto Canaan. Image: TheTorah.com, <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Two ancient cities are the primary candidates for Ur of the Chaldeans (Hebrew: Kasdim)<\/em>: Urfa in modern-day Turkey, the center of the Hurrian civilization, and Tell el-Muqayyar in modern-day Iraq, the Sumerian city of Ur. According to Mark Wilson, \u201cThe consensus of an earlier generation was that the Anatolian Ur was Abraham\u2019s Ur. When Leonard Woolley discovered the royal cemeteries at Sumerian Ur in 1927, he declared that his finds were \u2018worthy of Abraham.\u2019\u201d5<\/sup> Ever since, the consensus has been that the Sumerian Ur was Abraham\u2019s birthplace.6<\/sup> There are convincing reasons to believe the earlier generation may have correctly identified the Anatolian Ur as Abraham\u2019s hometown. Old Testament professor, Tony W. Cartledge, notes, \u201cSome ancient sources, however, suggest that the Chaldeans\u2019 original home was in Anatolia, now a part of Turkey, before some of them migrated south [to Mesopotamia].\u201d7<\/sup> Moreover, when Abraham sends his servant to choose a wife for his son Isaac, he directs him to \u201cgo to my country and to my own relatives\u201d (Gen. 24:10). His servant went to the city of Haran in Aram-Naharayim (\u201cBeyond the River\u201d), a region east of the Euphrates River, which fits the description of the northern Ur, but not the southern one. The ancient city of Haran in modern-day Turkey is 24 miles\/44km southeast of Urfa, and it make sense that Abraham\u2019s servant would go here, the region of Abraham\u2019s birth, to find a wife for his master\u2019s son. Unfortunately, today a city of 2 million people covers the site of ancient Ur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

9. City of Haran<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The beehive houses of Haran. Photo: A.D. Riddle\/Bibleplaces.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

After Abraham left Ur, he settled in Haran for years, before making his way to Canaan (Gen 11:31; Acts 7:2-4). Tell Haran is located on the fertile plain of the Balikh River, a major tributary of the Euphrates River. In ancient times it lay at the junction of major trade routes. It was a major center for the worship of the moon-god Sin. Excavations have unearthed a large mudbrick building that dates to the end of the third millennium BC, which some believe may have been a predecessor to the Temple of Sin.8 <\/sup>Abraham\u2019s father, Terah, may have worshiped the god Sin here, as Scripture records, \u201cyour fathers lived beyond the Euphrates, Terah, the father of Abraham and of Nahor; and they served other gods\u201d (Josh. 24:2). Haran is famous for its conical beehive houses, a style that has been used in Mesopotamia for thousands of years; the ones seen today at Haran were only built in the last 200 years.9<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

8. Gate at Tel Dan<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The Canaanite city gate of Leshem (renamed Dan after the Israelite Conquest) dates to the 18th century and is the oldest surviving archway in the world. Photo Credit: Bukvoed \/ Wikimedia Commons \/ CC BY 4.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The famous Middle Bronze Age arched gate at Tel Dan has often been called, \u201cAbraham\u2019s gate\u201d because Abram once rescued his nephew, Lot, from his kidnappers near the city (Gen. 14:14). The imposing mudbrick gate was constructed in the 18th<\/sup> century BC by the Canaanites at Lesham (Dan) on the eastern side of the city. It survives today at a height of 47 courses, and at one time featured three enormous arches which framed the entrance to the city.10<\/sup> A staircase led up to the gate from the surrounding plain and traces of the white plaster that originally covered the doorway can still be detected. Mysteriously, it was only used for about 50 years before it was covered over by an earthen rampart, which preserved it.11<\/sup> The gateway at Tel Dan was likely constructed a couple of centuries after Abraham\u2019s death; it is included in this list because of its association with him and because it is an example of the gate systems that would have been familiar to the patriarchs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

7. The Battle of Siddim<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The Battle of Siddim (also known as the Battle of Nine Kings) from Genesis 14. Image: Taken from the ESV\u00ae Study Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version\u00ae), copyright \u00a92008 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers.  Used by permission.  All rights reserved.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Genesis 14:1-3 records the Battle of Siddom: \u201cIn the days of Amraphel king of Shinar, Arioch king of Ellasar, Chedorlaomer king of Elam, and Tidal king of Goiim, these kings made war with Bera king of Sodom, Birsha king of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Admah, Shemeber king of Zeboiim, and the king of Bela (that is, Zoar). And all these joined forces in the Valley of Siddim (that is, the Salt Sea).\u201d During the battle, Abraham\u2019s nephew, Lot, is captured (Gen. 14:12), and Abraham sets out to rescue him Gen. 14:14-16. There are numerous elements of this battle in the biblical text which accurately reflect conditions in the patriarchal era, indicating its antiquity and not that it was invented over a millennium later, as those who hold to the documentary hypothesis suggest. First, names that are similar to the kings in this account have been found in other Mesopotamian texts from this period.12<\/sup> Secondly, after the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur in the late third millennium BC, the area was not dominated by a single power; large and small city-states with ever-changing political alliances controlled localized areas.13<\/sup> Thus, this passage accurately reflects the geopolitical situation of the patriarchal era.  Price and Holden conclude: \u201cThe antiquity of this account within the larger context of the patriarchal narratives indicates that there is substantial reason to regard the whole as historically accurate.\u201d14<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

6. Domesticated Camels<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
This bronze statue of a Bactrian camel with a harness dates to the late third or early second century BC. It is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Photo: Metmuseum.org\/Public Domain<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Scripture records that Abraham had a caravan of camels; his servant took ten of them when he went north to search for a wife for Isaac (Gen 24:10). Some suggest this is incorrect, an anachronistic detail, since Camels were not domesticated until the late second millennium BC or later, centuries after Abraham lived. For example, Donald Redford suggests that, \u201ccamels do not appear in the Near East as domesticated beasts of burden until the ninth century B.C.\u201d15<\/sup> Recent research, however has demonstrated that camels were actually domesticated before the time of Abraham. Ancient petroglyphs from Egypt and the Wadi Nasib depict humans leading camels who are tethered in the third and late second millennium BC.16 <\/sup>A late third or early second millennium BC bronze statue of a two-humped Bactrian camel with what appears to be a harness is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.17<\/sup> In addition to artistic representations, numerous excavations throughout the Ancient Near East have unearthed remains of camels in domestic settings. Titus Kennedy concludes, \u201cBones, hairs, wall paintings, models, inscriptions, seals, documents, statues, and stelae from numerous archaeological sites all suggest the camel in use as a domestic animal in the ancient Near East as early as the 3rd millennium BC\u201d18<\/sup> In actual fact, domesticated camels gave their owners a great economic advantage, which is in keeping with the general portrayal of Abraham as a wealthy man.19<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

5. Asiatic Merchants in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
A painting of Semitic merchants from Canaan arriving in Egypt from the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan. Photo: Wikimedia Commons\/Public Domain<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The book of Genesis describes the nomadic lifestyle of the patriarchs, and reports migration between Canaan and Egypt (Abraham in Gen. 12:10; Jacob and his sons in Gen. 42:5, 43:11, 46:5\u20147). When there was a famine in the land, Abraham and Sarah went down to Egypt. A painting in the tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan, dating to ca. 1890 BC, portrays a group of 37 Asiatics from Shut (the area of Sinai and southern Canaan) traveling to Egypt to do trade.20<\/sup> It is evidence of this migration pattern during the Middle Bronze Age and is a vivid depiction of what Abraham and his descendants may have looked like when they entered Egypt. Gary Byers notes, \u201cBoth the Biblical Patriarchs and the Beni Hasan Asiatics traveled from the same region (Syro-Palestine) to the same region (Egypt) during the same period (twentieth-nineteenth centuries BC). While no one proposes these are the Israelites, it is the right people, the right places and the right time to offer greater insights into the world of Biblical characters.\u201d21<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

4. Mari Tablets<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
One of the Mari Tablets from Zimri-Lim, king of Mari. Photo: M0tty\/Wikimedia Commons\/CC BY-SA 3.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Mari was a thriving city for over a millennium (ca. 2800-1760 BC) and served as the capital of the Amorites from ca. 2000-1760 BC. Excavations, which began in 1933, have unearthed over 15000 clay cuneiform tablets from the city\u2019s final years which provide a fascinating glimpse into the social, economic, and legal practices from that period, as well as examples of letters, treaties and literary works. The Mari Archive is an important archaeological discovery that helps us understand Amorite history and the broader culture in which Old Testament events occurred. While dating to a period after Abraham, they reflect some of the longstanding cultural traditions from the Patriarchal era. For example, the Mari texts reveal that, if a concubine bore the first son, his birthright could be withdrawn if the primary wife subsequently bore a son.22 <\/sup>Several places related to Abraham are also mentioned in Mari texts: a city named Nahur is mentioned, which may have been named after Abraham\u2019s grandfather Nahor (Gen. 11:22-25), as well as the city of Haran (Gen. 11:31).23<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

3. Tomb of the Patriarchs at Hebron<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The Herodian structure known as the Tomb of the Patriarchs at Hebron. Photo: HolyLandPhotos.org<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

When Abraham\u2019s wife, Sarah, died, he purchased the burial cave and field of Machpelah from Ephron the Hittite (Gen. 23:16-18).  Scripture records that Sarah, Abraham (Gen. 25:9-10), Isaac (Gen. 35:27-29), Rebekah (Gen. 49:31), Leah (Gen. 49:31), and Jacob (Gen. 50:13) were all buried in this cave.  Given its importance, the Israelites remembered its location throughout the ages, and a monumental structure was built over the site by Herod the Great.24<\/sup> Today, six medieval cenotaphs commemorating the burials of the patriarchs and matriarchs are inside the Tomb of the Patriarchs at Hebron. While the current political situation precludes proper excavation, several clandestine trips to the hallway and caves below the structure have been documented.25<\/sup> Recently, four pottery vessels, which were taken from the caves during a clandestine incursion in 1981, were dated to the Iron Age, suggesting that the Cave of Machpelah was venerated by pilgrims during the First-Temple-era.26<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

2. The \u201cEnclosure of Abram\u201d on Shoshenq I\u2019s Topographical List at Karnak<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
A relief from the temple wall at Karnak of Pharaoh Shishak\/Shoshenq I, along with a list of the places he conquered in his campaign into Canaan. Photo Credit: Olaf Tausch \/ Wikimedia Commons \/ CC BY 3.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak (Shoshenq I), invaded the lands of Judah and Israel in 926 BC. When he returned to Egypt, he had a record of his victories inscribed on a wall of the Great Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak. He boasts of having conquered over 150 places, each \u201cname ring\u201d depicted as a bound prisoner with a cartouche beneath it on which a toponym is listed in Egyptian hieroglyphics. One of the ovals, located just below and to the left of Shishak\u2019s right foot in the relief, reads, \u201cthe Fort\/Enclosure of Abram.\u201d27<\/sup> This place was located in the Negev, a region that Abraham frequented (Gen. 12:1, 13:1, 20:1), which would fit well with a place being named after him.28<\/sup> This is the only ancient, extra-biblical reference to Abraham.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1. Mt Moriah\/Temple Mount<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The rock outcropping of Mt. Moriah within the Dome of the Rock. Photo: Wikimedia Commons\/Public Domain<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

One of the most defining moments in Abraham\u2019s life was when the Lord called him to sacrifice his only Son Isaac. In Gen. 22:2 we that God said, \u201cTake your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah, and offer him there as a burnt offering on one of the mountains of which I shall tell you.\u201d  The region of Moriah is now covered by the modern-day city of Jerusalem, and Mt. Moriah itself is the Temple Mount, the place David built an altar to stop a plague, and where Solomon later built the temple in Jerusalem (2 Chr. 3:1). Joel Kramer helpfully notes that neither Abraham, nor David chose the location for their altars; the Lord directed them (Gen. 22:2 & 2 Sam. 24:18-19,24).29<\/sup> Today, all that is visible of Mt. Moriah is the rock outcropping within the Islamic shrine known as the Dome of the Rock. Leen Ritmeyer has observed the remains of a foundation trench on this rock, which would have served as the foundation for the southern wall of the Temple. He has also calculated a 20-cubit square flat space on this rock, corresponding to the measurements of the Holy of Holies in Solomon\u2019s temple (1 Kings 6:20), and noted a rectangular indentation in the rock, in the middle of the square, which is likely where the ark of the covenant stood.30 <\/sup>Mt. Moriah is the place God provided for Abraham a ram in place of Isaac, where God\u2019s presence filled the First temple during the days of Solomon (2 Chr. 7:1), and where the curtain of the Second Temple was torn when Jesus died (Mk 15:37-39), signifying that his sacrifice of atonement was sufficient and the Holy of Holies is now open for all people \u2013 both Jew and Gentile.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conclusion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Despite the fragmentary archaeological record during the Patriarchal era, numerous finds demonstrate that the story of Abraham accurately records cultural elements and places from that time period. This affirms the antiquity of the narratives of Genesis, and contradicts claims that the story of Abraham was the fabrication of a group of priests living in Babylonian exile (or later) who created him to invent a glorious history for their people. Rather, Abraham was a real man who lived at a real time in history. His faith in God was credited to him as righteousness such that he became the father of all who believe (Rom. 4:3-11).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cover Photo:<\/strong> The statue of Abraham by Gian Maria Morlaiter (1754) at the Gesuati Church (Our Lady of the Rosary) in Venice. Photo: Dick Stracke\/Wikimedia Commons\/CC BY-SA 3.0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Endnotes:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

1 Andrew E. Steinmann, From Abraham To Paul: A Biblical Chronology<\/em>. (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2011), 68.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2 Steven Collins and Joseph M. Holden, Eds., The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands.<\/em> (Eugene: Harvest House Publishers, 2019), 34.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

3 See \u201cChronology and the Patriarchal Lifespans\u201d (p. 54-55) in The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands<\/p>\n\n\n\n

4 For a discussion of Tall el-Hammam and its identification as the city of Sodom, see Dr. Steve Collins\u2019 explanation in \u201cIs Tall el-Hammam really biblical Sodom? \u2013 Troweling Down Episode 1\u201d here:  Dr. Bryant Wood\u2019s explanation here: <\/p>\n\n\n\n

5 Mark Wilson, Biblical Turkey: A Guide to the Jewish and Christian Sites of Asia Minor<\/em>. (\u0130stanbul: Ege Yayinlari, 2020), 42.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

6 It\u2019s interesting to note that Cyrus Gordon, an American Ancient Near Eastern scholar, who excavated with Leonard Wooley at the Sumerian Ur, never accepted Wooley\u2019s identification of the southern site as Abraham\u2019s \u201cUr of the Chaldees.;\u201d he believed the Abraham\u2019s Ur was located in the north.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

7 Tony W. Cartledge, \u201cHave We Erred on Ur?\u201d Good Faith Media. <\/em>Jan. 6, 2020.  ;(Accessed July 1, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

8 Todd Bolen, \u201cHaran.\u201d ;(Accessed July 2, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

9 Mark Wilson, Biblical Turkey: A Guide to the Jewish and Christian Sites of Asia Minor<\/em>. (\u0130stanbul: Ege Yayinlari, 2020), 38.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

10 \u201cMudbrick Gate,\u201d Tel Dan Excavations. ;(Accessed July 8, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

11 Todd Bolen, \u201cDan.\u201d Bible Places.<\/em> ;(Accessed July 8, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

12 Randall Price and H. Wayne House, Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology<\/em> (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017), 80.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

13 K. A. Kitchen, On The Reliability of the Old Testament.<\/em> (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006), 320.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

14 Randall Price and H. Wayne House, Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology<\/em> (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017), 81.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

15 Donald B. Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times<\/em>, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 277.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

16 Titus Kennedy, \u201cThe Date of Camel Domestication in the Ancient Near East.\u201d Associates for Biblical Research. <\/em>17 February 2014. ;(Accessed June 27, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

17 \u201cBactrian Camel,\u201d Metropolitan Museum of Art.<\/em> ;(Accessed June 27, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

18 Titus Kennedy, \u201cThe Date of Camel Domestication in the Ancient Near East.\u201d Associates for Biblical Research. <\/em>17 February 2014. ;(Accessed June 27, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

19 Stephen Caesar, \u201cPatriarchal Wealth and Early Domestication of the Camel.\u201d Associates for Biblical Research.<\/em> 19 February 2009. ;(Accessed June 27, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

20 Randall Price and H. Wayne House, Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology<\/em> (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017), 74. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

21 Gary Byers, \u201cThe Beni Hasan Asiatics and the Biblical Patriarchs.\u201d Associates for Biblical Research.<\/em> Sept. 9, 2009. ;(Accessed July 1, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

22 \u201cThe Rights of the Firstborn,\u201d NIV Archaeological Study Bible<\/em> (ed. Walter C. Kaiser Jr and Duane Garrett; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 43.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

23 Bryant G. Wood, \u201cThe Mari Archive.\u201d Associates for Biblical Research.<\/em> Feb. 6, 2006. ;(Accessed July 1, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

24 \u201cThe Cave of Machpelah,\u201d NIV Archaeological Study Bible<\/em> (ed. Walter C. Kaiser Jr and Duane Garrett; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 38.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

25 \u201cInside the Caves of Machpela,\u201d The Hebron Fund<\/em>. Feb. 8, 2018. ;(Accessed July 8, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

26 Bryan Windle, \u201cNew Study Analyzes Pottery Taken from the Tomb of the Patriarchs in Hebron.\u201d Associates for Biblical Research.<\/em> Sept. 22, 2020. ;(Accessed July 8, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

27 Kenneth A. Kitchen, \u201cShishak\u2019s Military Campaign in Israel Confirmed.\u201d Jewish History. <\/em>;(Accessed July 8, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

28 Kenneth A. Kitchen, K. A. Kitchen, On The Reliability of the Old Testament<\/em>. (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006), 313-314.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

29 Joel Kramer, Where God Came Down. <\/em>(Brigham City: Expedition Bible, 2020), 29.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

30 Leen Ritmeyer,\u00a0The Quest: Revealing the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.<\/em>\u00a0(Jerusalem: Carta, 2006), 246.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Related to Paul

The Apostle Paul was undoubtedly one of the most influential Christians in the first century, going on (at least) three missionary journeys, planting churches in various cities throughout the Roman Empire, and writing 13 books in the New Testament.  While some critics have questioned his authorship of some of these (for which there are good rebuttals), no serious scholar questions the historicity of Paul.  Moreover, the record of his journeys, as written by Luke in the book of Acts, has repeatedly proven to be accurate.  Here then are the top ten discoveries related to the Apostle Paul.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

10. Roman Roads<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The Via Taurus, north of Tarsus. Paul would have likely walked this road on his second and third missionary journeys. Photo: Courtesy of Jerrell Jobe<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

One of the underappreciated features of the New Testament world are the roads.  The Roman Empire went to great lengths and expense to build a system of paved roads throughout the Empire.  In fact, by the time of the Emperor Diocletian (ca. AD 300), it is estimated that they had constructed over 53,000 miles of roads.1<\/sup> To the Romans, this was a way to move soldiers quickly to any place in the Empire.  For the Apostle Paul, these roads provided a way for him to travel on his missionary journeys to spread the gospel of Jesus Christ.  New Testament archaeologist W.M. Ramsay summarized: \u201cThe Roman roads were probably at their best during the first century after Augustus had put an end to war and disorder.\u2026 Thus St. Paul traveled in the best and safest period.\u201d2<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A Roman bridge on the Via Sebeste. Paul would have likely walked this route between Iconium and Pisidian Antioch on his first missionary journey. Photo: Courtesy of Mark Wilson. You can learn more about the Via Sebeste here: <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The remains of some of the Roman roads that Paul would have traveled on still remain today. He walked the Via Sebeste (\u201cImperial Road\u201d), while traveling between Iconium and Pisidian Antioch on their first missionary journey (Acts 13:51). He would have trod the Via Taurus, when he began his second and third missionary journeys (Acts 15:41-16:1; 18:23).3<\/sup> The Via Ignatia (Ignatian Way) was Rome\u2019s primary road to the east, and Paul would have walked this road on his second missionary journey as the traveled to Philippi from Neapolis (Acts 16:11-12).  Finally, after Paul appealed to Caesar (Acts 25:11), he traveled to Rome.  During the final leg of that journey, he would have walked the Appian Way, the remains of which are still seen today near Rome. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

9. Sergius Paulus Inscriptions<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Paul and Barnabas met Sergius Paulus, the proconsul of Cyprus, during their first missionary journey.  He is described as \u201ca man of intelligence, who summoned Barnabas and Saul and sought to hear the word of God\u201d (Acts 13:7).   Sergius Paulus eventually put his faith in Jesus Christ (Acts 13:12) and, after leaving Cyprus, Paul and Barnabas immediately made their way to Pisidian Antioch2 (Acts 13:14).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Numerous inscriptions which mention a Roman official named Sergius Paulus have been discovered; these may refer to the man the Apostle Paul led to faith in Christ4<\/sup>.  They include: <\/p>\n\n\n\n

This stone, bearing the name Sergius Paulus, was discovered near Pisidian Antioch, the site of the family estate. Photo Credit: HolyLandPhotos.org<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
  • a Greek inscription (IGR III, 930), discovered at Soloi, on the northern coast of Cyprus, that names a \u201cproconsul Paulus\u201d<\/li>
  • the Roman Tiber River inscription (CIL 6.41545), dating to the mid-40\u2019s AD, which names commissioners of the Tiber River, one of which is Lucius Sergius Paullus <\/li>
  • a fragmentary inscription discovered near Pisidian Antioch, currently housed in the Yalvac Museum, on which the name L. Sergius Paulus is visible<\/li>
  • an inscription near Pisidian Antioch which was copied by Sir William Ramsay and J.G.C. Anderson in 1912 that refers to L. Sergius Paullus, the younger, son of Lucius<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

    These inscriptions demonstrate that there was indeed an important Roman official named Sergius Paulus in the middle of the first century.  His family owned an estate northwest of Pisidian Antioch5<\/sup>, which may explain why the Apostle Paul\u2019s next stop after leading Sergius Paulus to faith in Christ was this city; the proconsul may have asked Paul to share the gospel with the rest of his family.  New Testament scholar, Ben Witherington III concludes: \u201cIn sum, the inscriptional evidence clearly places Sergii Pauli on the island of Cyprus and the Latin inscription about Lucius of that family may point us to the man in question.  Given what we know about the Roman career patterns of the time it is quite feasible that a curator of the Tiber might have before or after his curatorship served as proconsul on Cyprus.\u201d6<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    8. Erastus Inscription<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The Erastus Inscription in Corinth. The 7-inch tall letters were at one time filled with bronze. Photo Credit: Farrell Jenkins <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    The Apostle Paul wrote his letter to the Romans while he was in Corinth.  At the end of the epistle (Rom. 16:23) he sent greetings from Erastus, the \u201ccity treasure\u201d (ESV) or \u201cdirector of public works\u201d (NIV).  The Greek word that is used is oikonomos<\/em>, which means \u201cmanager\u201d or \u201csteward.\u201d It is a general term that Paul likely use to describe the role Erastus filled, rather than his official title.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    In 1929, an inscription was discovered at Corinth on a large paving stone near the theater.  It dates to the middle of the first century A.D. and reads, \u201cErastus, in return for his aedileship laid [the pavement] at his own expense.\u201d7<\/sup> The seven-inch high letters in the inscription would have been filled with bronze at one time, although they are hollow today.  An aedile was an elected official who functioned as the city\u2019s business manager, overseeing the city\u2019s buildings, roads, marketplace, and public funds.8<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    There are several good reasons to believe that the Erastus inscription refers to the Erastus of Paul\u2019s letter to the Romans.  First, Erastus is a rare name; the inscription from Corinth is the only archaeological evidence we have of this name in the city.  Second, the inscription dates precisely to the time Erastus was known to be an official in the city.  And finally, inscriptional evidence from other cities, such as Philadelphia, Smyrna, and Hierapolis, have demonstrated that the term oikonomos <\/em>could describe the position of an aedile.<\/em>9<\/sup> In short, the Erastus of Paul\u2019s epistle was likely the high-ranking Corinthian official who laid the paving stone at his own expense.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    7. Roman Officials \u2013 Asiarchs<\/em> & Politarchs<\/em><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The Politarch Inscription from Thessalonica. Photo: HolyLandPhotos.org<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    Throughout the Roman empire of the first century there were a myriad of political titles and roles.  The apostle Paul encountered various officials during his missionary journeys, and Luke, who traveled with him, accurately recorded these interactions.  However, his uses of some terms, such as politarchs<\/em> and asiarchs<\/em>, were so rare outside of Scripture, that critics in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries questioned Luke\u2019s historical accuracy.  Archaeology has since vindicated the good doctor, and we now have many examples of these terms. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    In Thessalonica, Paul and Silas led numerous people to faith in Christ, including some devout Greeks and prominent women.  The Jews in the city incited a riot and went to the home of Jason, where Paul and Silas were staying to seize them.  In Acts 17:6 we read, \u201cAnd when they could not find them, they dragged Jason and some of the brothers before the city authorities [Gk. politarchs<\/em>] shouting, \u201cThese men who have turned the world upside down have come here also.\u201d  In 1876, an inscription was discovered on the second-century Roman arch over the Vardar Gate at Thessalonica.  It begins, \u201cServing as politarchs<\/em>\u2026\u201d and lists the names of those who were politarchs<\/em> in the city.10<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    In Acts 19:31 we read that Paul had friends among some of the asiarchs<\/em> of Ephesus.  The terms is translated \u201cofficials of the province\u201d (NIV) and \u201cprovincial authorities\u201d (NET) in English versions of Scripture.   Asiarch<\/em> inscriptions have now been found in over 40 cities throughout Asia, including numerous ones in Ephesus that date to within 50 years of the Apostle Paul.  So far 106 individual asiarchs<\/em>, both men and women, have been identified in Ephesus.11<\/sup> <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    6. Temple Warning Inscriptions<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

    Paul was seized in Jerusalem by Jews who mistakenly believed he had brought a Gentile into the inner courts of the Temple.  Scripture records, \u201cThe Jews from Asia, seeing him in the temple, stirred up the whole crowd and laid hands on him, crying out, \u201cMen of Israel, help! This is the man who is teaching everyone everywhere against the people and the law and this place. Moreover, he even brought Greeks into the temple and has defiled this holy place.\u201d For they had previously seen Trophimus the Ephesian with him in the city, and they supposed that Paul had brought him into the temple.\u201d (Acts 21:27-29).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The Temple Warning Inscription is currently housed in the Instanbul Archaeological Museum. Photo: Tamar Hayardeni \/ Wikimedia Commmons<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    Within the Temple complex, non-Jews and the ritually impure were allowed to go no further than the court of the Gentiles.   Josephus describes warning signs leading into the inner precinct in both Greek and Latin that forbade foreigners from going beyond that point on pain of death.12<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    One of these limestone warning signs was discovered in 1871 by French archaeologist Charles Clermont-Ganneau.  It reads:  \u201cNo foreigner is to enter within the railing and enclosure around the temple.  And whoever is caught will be responsible to himself for his subsequent death.\u201d13<\/sup>  In 1935 a second fragmentary temple warning inscription was discovered outside of the Old City of Jerusalem near the Lion\u2019s Gate.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The Temple Warning Inscriptions are vivid reminders of the outrage the Jews mistakenly had when they seized Paul in the Temple. They are also likely what Paul had in mind when he described the \u201cdividing wall\u201d that had been torn down between Jews and Gentiles in Christ (Eph. 2:14).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    5. Athens: Marketplace & Mars\u2019 Hill<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The Areopagus (Mars\u2019 Hill) in Athens. Photo: HolyLandPhotos.org<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    Paul\u2019s stop in Athens on his second missionary journey was brief, but eventful.  He was disturbed to see the city full of idols and began to preach the gospel in the local synagogue and the marketplace.  This led to him being taken to speak to the Areopagus, or Mars\u2019 Hill (Acts 17:16-34).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The remains of the Roman forum in Athens, the site of the marketplace in Paul\u2019s Day. Photo: George E. Koronaios \/ Wikimedia Commons \/ Public Domain<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    In Athens, an older Greek agora and newer Roman forum formed two sections of a single agora, separated by the Stoa of Attalos.14<\/sup> The Roman forum was the marketplace in Paul\u2019s day, and it is here he reasoned with people each day (Acts 17:17).  By the mid-first century, the Greek agora had become a sort of museum, filled with altars, statues, and temples.15<\/sup> Images and idols of numerous gods were to be seen all around the city, including the great statue of Athena, the patron goddess of Athens, as well as other gods known to have been worshiped in the city (ie. Apollo, Aphrodite, Hera, Demeter, Artemis, etc.). There was even an altar to \u201cto the unknown god\u201d (Acts 17:23), numerous examples of which have been discovered throughout the ancient world.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The Areopagus (lit. Mars\u2019 Hill) refers to both a council that had judicial authority in Athens16<\/sup> and a prominent rock outcropping located 140 feet below the Acropolis. In Paul\u2019s day, Mars Hill was the meeting place of the Areopagus, the main governing body of the city17<\/sup>, and it is here that he likely made his famous address (Acts 17:22-34).  Visitors to Athens today can climb to the top of Mars Hill and see the remains of the city Paul visited.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

     4. Herod\u2019s Praetorium at Caesarea Maritima<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The Sea Palace at Caesarea Maritima was built by Herod the Great, but was used as the residence of the Roman prefects and procurators after Judea became a Roman province in 6 BC. Paul likely appeared before Festus, King Agrippa and Queen Bernice in this building (Acts 26). Photo: ABRAHAM GRAICER \/ Wikimedia Commons \/ CC BY-SA 4.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    Paul spent two years imprisoned in Caesarea Maritima under the Roman governors Felix and Festus (Acts 24:27).  Acts 23:35 records that he was guarded in \u201cHerod\u2019s praetorium\u201d (ESV) or \u201cHerod\u2019s palace\u201d (NIV).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Herod the Great constructed the city of Caesarea on the site of Strabo\u2019s Tower, naming it thus to honor Caesar Augustus.  The coastal city\u2019s harbour was on the main route between Tyre and Egypt.18<\/sup> Herod\u2019s kingdom was eventually turned into a Roman province, and Caesarea Maritima became its main port and administrative capital.  Herod\u2019s palace became the official residence of the Roman governor, and it was there that Paul was held in custody.19<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The remains of Herod\u2019s seaside palace, called the Promontory Palace, with its central pool, can still be seen today at Caesarea Maritima. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    3. Ephesus: Artemis and the Great Theater<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The Great Theater in Ephesus was the site of the riot recorded in Acts 19. Photo: Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    Paul made Ephesus the center of his ministry for over two years.  During this time, the gospel \u201ccontinued to increase and prevail mightily\u201d (Acts 19:20) so that \u201call the residents of Asia heard the word of the Lord\u201d (Acts 19:10).  This threatened the livelihood of those who made their living from the worship of the goddess Artemis (Acts 19:27-27).  A riot ensued, incited by Demetris the silversmith, in which \u201cthe city was filled with the confusion, and they rushed together into the theater\u201d where for two hours they shouted, \u201cGreat is Artemis of the Ephesians!\u201d (Acts 19:29, 34)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    A miniature replica of the Ephesian Temple of Artemis at Minaturk, a miniature park in Istanbul. Photo: Lee Prime \/ Wikimedia Commons \/ CC BY-SA 3.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    Many of the elements in this account have been affirmed by Archaeology. Numerous ancient voices affirm the importance of the worship of Artemis at Ephesus.  The temple itself was discovered by J.T. Wood, after a six-year search.  At one time it was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, such that Antipater of Sidon declared that when he saw the Temple of Artemis, \u201cthose other marvels lost their brilliancy.\u201d20<\/sup> It had 127 columns and was, at one time, the largest religious building in the ancient world.  Today, only the remains of the foundations and a single column stand at the site, although some of the sculptured columns from the temple are in the British Museum.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Three remarkable statues of the goddess Artemis were discovered in civic center of the upper city and are now in the Ephesus Museum.21<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The remains of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus today. Photo: Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    The Great Theater of Ephesus still dominates the landscape of Ephesus; it is built into the west side of Mt. Pion with a direct view of the harbor.  It was constructed during the Hellenistic era in typical Greek style; renovations to it began in AD 40, and took seventy years to complete, so it was under construction when the Apostle Paul lived there.22  <\/sup>The theater could seat over 20,000 people with the topmost row of benches almost 100 feet in the air.  Tourists today can explore the Great Theater, knowing it is the exact site of the events described in Acts 19.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    2. The Bema of Corinth<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The bema of Corinth in the foreground with the Acrocorint towering in the background. Photo: Todd Bolen: BiblePlaces.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    When Paul was in Corinth during his second missionary journey, the Jews of the city brought charges against him before the proconsul, Gallio.  Acts 18:12-16 records this event:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \u201cBut when Gallio was proconsul of Achaia, the Jews made a united attack on Paul and brought him before the tribunal, saying, \u2018This man is persuading people to worship God contrary to the law.\u2019 But when Paul was about to open his mouth, Gallio said to the Jews, \u2018If it were a matter of wrongdoing or vicious crime, O Jews, I would have reason to accept your complaint. But since it is a matter of questions about words and names and your own law, see to it yourselves. I refuse to be a judge of these things.\u2019 And he drove them from the tribunal.\u201d (ESV)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The word, tribunal, is the Greek word bema<\/em>, meaning judgment seat.  This was a speaker\u2019s platform where official proclamations were publicly read, and where citizens appeared before civic officials.23<\/sup> The bema<\/em> of Corinth was discovered in 1935, and was identified because of a Latin inscription, which read, \u201c\u2026he revetted the rostra<\/em> [the Latin equivalent of a bema<\/em>] and paid personally the expense of making all its marble.\u201d24<\/sup>  The bema<\/em> of Corinth is a large, stone speakers\u2019 platform rising 2.3m (7.5 ft) above the pavement of the Market; it is here that the Apostle Paul was acquitted by Gallio.  Paul, likely remembering this incident, warned the Corinthians that, \u201cwe must all appear before the judgment seat [bema<\/em>] of Christ, so that each one may receive what is due for what he has done in the body, whether good or evil.\u201d (2 Cor. 5:10)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    1. Gallio Inscription<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

    Archaeological evidence for Gallio, the proconsul of Achia who tried Paul in Corinth, was discovered at Delphi, Greece in 1905.  The Gallio Inscription (or Delphi Inscription) is a group of nine fragments which were likely once part of the walls of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi.25<\/sup>  It is a copy of a letter from the Emperor Claudius in which he speaks about guarding the cult of Apollo at Delphi and references \u201cJunius Gallio, my friend and proconsul.\u201d26<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    In this inscription from Delphi, Greece, the Roman emperor Claudius names \u201cmy friend and proconsul L. Iunius Gallio.\u201d Photo credit: Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com (This Photo is part of an excellent resource called the Photo Companion to the Bible \u2013 )<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    The inscription states that Claudius had been \u201cacclaimed Imperator for the 26th time,\u201d dating it to between January and August, AD 52.  Biblical scholar, Dr. Andrew Steinmann from Concordia University Chicago, has noted that this firmly establishes the dates of Gallio\u2019s proconsulship.  Since proconsuls usually took office on May 1st and served for only one year, we know that Gallio served as Proconsul of Achaia from May 1, AD 51 to end of April AD 52.27<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The Gallio Inscription acts as a chronological anchor by which we can date the Apostle Paul\u2019s ministry in Corinth: he would have been brought before Gallio by the Jews sometime in the middle of AD 51.  This then is a fixed marker by which we can work forwards and backwards dating most of Paul\u2019s ministry and much of the history of the early church.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Conclusion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

    These discoveries demonstrate that the record of Paul\u2019s life written in the book of Acts and in his epistles has been accurately recorded.  Many of people, places, and events named have been affirmed through archaeology. If we can trust what is written about his life, I believe we can trust that the teachings of Paul have been accurately recorded as well.  He wrote to the church in Rome that \u201cGod shows his love for us in that while we were still sinners, Christ died for us. Since, therefore, we have now been justified by his blood, much more shall we be saved by him from the wrath of God. (Romans 5:8-9).  This truth drove the Apostle Paul to preach the gospel wherever he went, declaring the all \u201cmust turn to God in repentance and have faith in our Lord Jesus.\u201d (Acts 20:21).  In the 2000 years since the Apostle Paul lived, Christians have been proclaiming the same message. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Cover<\/strong> Photo: <\/strong>This fresco of Paul dates to the 5th or 6th century and is to be seen in the Grotto of St. Paul in Ephesus. You can learn more about it here: : Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Endnotes:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    1 Edwin M. Yamauchi, \u201cOn the Road with Paul.\u201d Christian History, <\/em>Issue 47. ;(Accessed April 27, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    2 Ibid.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    3 Gordon Franz, \u201c\u201cHow Beautiful Are the Feet\u201d of Talbot Students on Roman Roads in 2011.\u201d ;(Accessed April 27, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    4 Bryan Windle, \u201cSergius Paulus: An Archaeological Biography.\u201d Bible Archaeology Report. <\/em><\/em> (Accessed April 28, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    5 Mark Wilson, Biblical Turkey: A Guide to the Jewish and Christian Sites of Asia Minor<\/em>. (\u0130stanbul: Ege Yayinlari, 2020), 107.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    6 Ben Witherington III, The Acts of the Apostles: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary.<\/em> (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998), 400.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    7 John McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament.<\/em> (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1991), 331.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    8 Ibid, 332.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    9 Randall Price and H. Wayne House, Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology<\/em> (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017), 309.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    10 Clyde E. Fant and Mitchell G. Reddish, Lost Treasures of the Bible<\/em>. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 367.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    11 John McRay. \u201cArchaeology and the Book of Acts\u201d Criswell Theological Review, <\/em>5.1, 1990, Pg. 77.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    12 Josephus, Antiquities,<\/em> 15.5.1.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    13 Clyde E. Fant and Mitchell G. Reddish, Lost Treasures of the Bible<\/em>. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 328.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    14 John McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament.<\/em> (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1991), 302.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    15 Ibid, 304.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    16 Ibid, 308.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    17 Todd Bolen, \u201cAthens.\u201d ;(Accessed May 3, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    18 Ferrell Jenkins, \u201cActs 24 \u2014 Photo Illustrations \u2014 Caesarea.\u201d ;(Accessed May 4, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    19 Barbara Burrell, Kathryn L. Gleason, and Ehud Netzer, \u201cUncovering Herod\u2019s Seaside Palace.\u201d Biblical Archaeology Review<\/em> 19:3, May\/June 1993, p. 56.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    20 Antipater, Greek Anthology<\/em> IX. 58<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    21 Mark Wilson, Biblical Turkey: A<\/em> Guide to the Jewish and Christian Sites of Asia Minor<\/em>. (\u0130stanbul: Ege Yayinlari, 2020), 222.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    22 Ibid, 214.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    23 Alfred Hoerth and John McRay, Bible Archaeology: An Exploration of the History and Culture of Early Civilizations,<\/em> (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2005), 257.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    24 \u201cThe Judgement Seat\u201d in NIV Archaeological Study Bible<\/em> (ed. Walter C. Kaiser Jr and Duane Garrett; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 1891.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    25 Clyde E. Fant and Mitchell G. Reddish, Lost Treasures of the Bible<\/em>. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 336.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    26 Ibid, 337.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    27 Andrew E. Steinmann,\u00a0From Abraham To Paul: A Biblical Chronology<\/em>.\u00a0(St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2011), 305.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    <\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    Related to David

    At one time, some Bible minimalists (those who believe the Bible is of minimal value historically) questioned the very existence of\u00a0King David. In recent years, numerous archaeological discoveries have confirmed the existence of Israel\u2019s greatest king, and affirmed numerous details in the biblical text regarding his life and the times in which he lived.\u00a0 Here are the top ten discoveries related to King David. \u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    10. Ancient Slingshots<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The slings of the Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamun (King Tut) were discovered in his tomb. Photo: Dale Dunlop<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    David is perhaps best-known for his epic mano-a-mano battle against Goliath. The boy with a sling defeated a gigantic, seasoned warrior. While many are familiar with the Y-shaped slingshots with the rubber bands that are used today, slings in the Old Testament were quite different. Biblical weapons expert, Dr. Boyd Seevers describes them: \u201cA sling can be a simple as a strap some three feet in length and one inch in width, though it is often made with two narrow chords attached to a wider pouch in the center. Often, the sling is woven from wool or some other type of flexible material from an animal or plant. One end is looped or knotted to attach to one of the fingers of the thrower\u2019s hand, and the other end is knotted for the thumb and forefinger to grip until the moment of release.\u201d1<\/sup> Several ancient slingshots from Egypt have survived until today, including King Tut\u2019s sling, which was discovered in his tomb.   Slingshots were formidable long-range weapons in antiquity. Ancient texts suggest that slingers were accurate with their projectiles up to 400 yards.2<\/sup> Scripture records that there were 700 men from the tribe of Benjamin who could \u201csling a stone at a hair and not miss.\u201d (Judges 20:16). This gives us a better understanding of the advantage David had in his battle with Goliath. Of course, we ought not forget that the Battle belonged to the Lord (1 Sam. 17:47).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    9.  The Gath Ostracon<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    This inscribed pottery sherd was discovered at Tell es-Safi\/Gath and contains two names that are similar etymologically to the name Goliath. Photo: The Tell es-Safi\/Gath Archaeological Project<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    In 2005, an inscribed ostracon (inscribed pottery sherd) was unearthed at Tell es-Safi (the site of the biblical Philistine city of Gath) that was dated to the Iron Age 2A period (when David and Goliath lived). The inscription, written in Semitic \u201cProto-Canaanite\u201d script contained two names: ALWT and WLT.3<\/sup> Both of these names (ALWT \u2013 Heb. \u05d0\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea  and WLT \u2013 Heb. \u05d5\u05dc\u05ea) are very similar etymologically to the name Goliath (Heb. \u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05ea). Aren Maeir, the director of the excavations at Tell es-Safi\/Gath summaries the importance of this inscription: \u201c1) the inscription demonstrates that ca. the 10th\/9th cent. BCE, names very similar to Goliath were in use at Philistine Gath. This does provide some cultural background for the David\/Goliath story; 2) that already early in Iron IIA, the Philistines adopted the Semitic writing systems.\u201d4<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    8. Hebron (Tell Hebron\/Tell Rumeide)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    A section of the Middle Bronze II fortification wall at Tell Hebron\/Tell Rumeide which continued to be used in the Iron Age I and II. Photo: Emek Shaveh \/ <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    David initially reigned as king of Judah at Hebron, while Saul\u2019s son Ish-Bosheth, reigned as king of Israel from Mahanaim. (2 Sam. 2:8-11). Hebron has identified as Jebel er-Rumeide, also called Tell Rumeide or Tell Hebron. Five LMLK (to the king) jar handles bearing the city name Hebron have been discovered at the site.5<\/sup> Excavations have uncovered sections of the Middle Bronze II city wall, which continued to be used in the Iron I and II periods,6<\/sup> as well as the remains of four-roomed houses and fragments of collared-rim jars, both of which are typically associated with Israelites.7 <\/sup> The remains of David\u2019s royal residence likely lie on the summit of the tell, which is covered by a medieval structure (called Deir Arbain by the locals) which was originally a Byzantine monastery, and is off-limits to excavation.8<\/sup> While David is more commonly associated with Jerusalem, the first capital of the Kingdom of Judah was at Hebron.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    7. Geshur (et-Tell)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The Iron Age Gates at et-Tell, likely the capital of the ancient kingdom of Geshur. Photo: HolyLandPhotos.org<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    While David was reigning in Hebron, he had numerous sons by various wives. His thirdborn was Absalom the son of Maacah daughter of Talmai king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3:3). Later, after Absalom had murdered his brother Amnon, he fled to his grandfather, Talmai, son of Ammihud, the king of Geshur, and lived with him for three years (2 Sam.  13:37-38). Scholars have suggested that David married Maacah, the daughter of the king of Geshur to solidify relations between their two kingdoms, and to strengthen his own position.  In antiquity, the usual practice was for the daughter of the more powerful ruler to be given to the weaker ruler, which would indicate that Geshur was the stronger kingdom.9<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Et-Tell, a site 3km (1.5 miles) from the north-east shore of the Sea of Galilee has been identified as the capital of the Kingdom of Geshur. It satisfies the geographic criteria in Scripture (Deut 3:14; Josh 12:4\u20135; 13: 11\u201313), where it often paired with Abel Beth Maacah. Abel Beth Maacah is identified as Tell Abil al-Qamh, and et-Tell is identified as the capital of the kingdom of Geshur; both sites are the most prominent Iron Age mounds in the region.10<\/sup> Et-Tell (one of the contending sites for New Testament Bethsaida), was a significant fortified city in David\u2019s day; the massive four\u2013chamber Iron-Age Gate can still be seen today. A carved basalt stone stela was discovered near the city gates and depicts a bull-headed figure, which likely represents either the storm god or the moon god the people of Geshur worshiped.11<\/sup> If the identification of et-Tell as the capital of the kingdom of Geshur is correct, then this is likely where David\u2019s wife Macaah was from, and the place his son Absalom lived for three years.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    6. Large Stone Structure (King David\u2019s Palace in Jerusalem)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The Large Stone Structure was identified by archaeologist, Eilat Mazar, as the palace of King David. Photo: Photo courtesy of Dr. Eilat Mazar.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    David was eventually made king over all Israel (2 Sam. 5:3), and he immediately captured Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:7), and set to budling a palace, which Hiram, king of Tyre, assisted in the construction of by providing cedar logs, carpenters, and stonemasons (2 Sam. 5:11). From 2005-2007, Israeli archaeologist, Dr. Eilat Mazar, unearthed what is now known as the Large Stone Structure, a monumental building complex with walls that were 6-8 feet wide, constructed of impressive stones, and to which a beautiful 5-foot-long proto-Aeolic capital likely once belonged. It is located above the famous Iron-Age Stepped-Stone Structure, which probably supported the Fortress of Zion and the Large Stone Structure above. The pottery found beneath the Large Stone Structure, dated the first phase of its construction to the beginning of the Iron Age IIa (10th<\/sup> century BC), the time of King David. Based on the palatial nature of the structure and the fact that its location matched biblical data (such as 2 Sam. 5:17 \u2013 David descending from his residence to the fortress), Mazar identified the structure as David\u2019s Palace.12<\/sup> While this identification has not been without controversy, numerous scholars accept her conclusion. Archaeologist, Dr. Scott Stripling, states, \u201cEilat Mazar\u2019s excavation of the Large Stone Structure likely revealed David\u2019s actual palace, just above the well-known Stepped Stone Structure or milo.\u201d13<\/sup> Nadav Na\u2019aman, former professor of Jewish History at Tel Aviv University notes, \u201cThe Large Stone Structure, which Eilat Mazar unearthed and identified as the residence of King David, is indeed a suitable candidate for this building, or more accurately, for its northeastern wing.\u201d14<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    5. Judahite Cities (Khirbet Qieyafa and Tel Eton)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    An aerial view of Khirbet Qeiyafa, an Iron-Age site in the kingdom of Judah. Photo: Khirbet Qeiyafa Archaeological Project <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    Scripture records David\u2019s kingdom expanding (2 Sam. 8:1-4), and controlling the kingdom from his capital city of Jerusalem. Two fortified sites dating to the 10th<\/sup> century have been unearthed which scholars believe are evidence of such a centralized authority controlling the region. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Iron Age Gate with a view toward Azekah. Photo Ferrell Jenkins<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    Yosef Garfinkel (Hebrew University) and Saar Ganor (Israel Antiquities Authority) oversaw excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa from 2007-2013. The site is located 30km southwest of Jerusalem, within the kingdom of Judah, and surrounded by a massive casement fortification wall with two gates. Its 10th<\/sup> century date was confirmed by radiocarbon dating of pits in a destruction layer of a large royal storeroom.15<\/sup> The excavators identified it as a Judahite outpost based on inscriptional evidence (an ostracon with one of the earliest Hebrew texts yet found), a lack of pig bones, and the presence of cultic shrines that did not have any graven images of people or animals. Garfinkel and Ganor state, \u201cThe massive construction of the Khirbet Qeiyafa city wall, which required 200,000 tons of stone, and the massive eastern gate of the city with two stones of ca. 10 tons each, proclaim the power and authority of a centralize political organization, namely a state.\u201d16<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    These large ashlar stones form the main entrance to a building at Tel \u2018Eton that dates to the 10th century BC. Photo Credit: Avraham Faust\u200b\/ Tel \u2018Eton Archaeological Expedition)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    Archaeologists from Bar-Ilan University recently excavated El Eton, another site that dates to the time of David and displays evidence of a strong, central political administration during its construction. A monumental structure, dubbed the \u201cgovernor\u2019s residency\u201d was built using quality ashlar stones in the typical Israelite four-room design. Radiocarbon dating of samples taken from the foundation deposit indicate that the earliest phase of the structure was built in the late 11th<\/sup>-10th<\/sup> century BC. In an article in the journal Radiocarbon, <\/em>Avraham Faust and Yair Sapir wrote: \u201cThe building of the \u2018governor\u2019s residency,\u2019\u2026suggests that the settlement at Tel \u2018Eton was transformed in the 10th century BCE, lending important support to the historicity of the United Monarchy\u2026[it] exhibits the earliest evidence for the use of ashlar stones in the region of Judah, and the mere erection of this edifice challenges one of the arguments against the historical plausibility of the United Monarchy (i.e., that ashlar construction appeared hundreds of years later).\u201d17<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    4. Davidic Kings<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    Evidence for five consecutive generations of Davidic Kings (from left to right): seal of Sebnayau, \u201cservant of Uzziah\u201d; seal impression of Ahaz [son of] Yehotam [Jotham], King of Judah\u201d; seal impression of \u201cHezekiah [son of] Ahaz, King of Judah\u201d; seal of \u201cManasseh, son of the king.\u201d Photo Credits (from left to right): Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com; The Madain Project; Ouria Tadmor \/ \u00a9 Eilat Mazar; Israel Exploration Society<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    After King David\u2019s death, 20 of his descendants ruled in succession after him, from Solomon to the kings who reigned over the southern Kingdom of Judah. Archaeology has furnished numerous finds attesting to many of these Davidic kings.18<\/sup> The nearly identical gates at Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer are evidence of Solomon\u2019s building activity as described in 1 Kings 9:15.19<\/sup> Ahaziah is the king of the \u201chouse of David\u201d referred to on the Tel Dan Stele (see below). Two seals which once belonged to officials in King Uzziah\u2019s court mention him by name. A bulla (clay seal impressions) that reads, \u201cBelonging to Ahaz (son of) Yehotam [Jotham], King of Judah\u201d is held in the private collection of Shlomo Moussaieff in London. Numerous seal impressions from King Hezekiah have been discovered, and he is named in the annals of Sennacherib. Manasseh is named in the annals of both Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, while Jehoiachin is mentioned in ration tablets from Babylon. Each of these discoveries independently corroborates the biblical description of a Davidic line of kings who reigned in Israel and Judah for generations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    3. \u201cHeights of David\u201d Inscription<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The Bubastis Portal at the Karnak Temple records the the places the Pharaoh Shoshenq I (biblical Shishak) conquered in his campaign in Israel and Judah in 926 BC. Photo: Olaf Tausch \/ Wikimedia Commons \/ CC BY 3.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
    Some of the place name rings that are listed on the Triumphal Relief of Shoshenq I at Karnak. Rings 105 and 106 have been reconstructed by Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen to read, \u201cHeights or Highlands of David.\u201d Image: Drawing by Champion in University of Chicago Oriental Institute Epigraphic Survey (1954), Reliefs and inscriptions at Karnak: The Bubastite portal, vol. III. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    King David\u2019s name has been found in numerous ancient Inscriptions, including one possible reference from Egypt. When the Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak (Shoshenq I), returned from his campaign in Palestine in 926\/25 BC, he commanded that his victories be recorded on the walls of the Temple of Amun in Karnak. More than 150 hieroglyphic name-rings, each represented as a bound prisoner, are recorded on Bubastite Portal detailing the places he conquered during his northern campaign. Names rings 105 and 106 together read h(y)dbt dwt<\/em> \u2013 the \u201cHeights or Highlands of Dawit.\u201d Egyptologist, Kenneth Kitchen, has proposed that this should read, \u201cHeights of David.\u201d He writes, \u201cIn Egyptian transcriptions of foreign names (both places and personal), a t<\/em> could and sometimes did transcribe a Semitic d<\/em>. This happens in the New Kingdom in such familiar place-names as Megiddo (Egyp. Mkt).\u201d20<\/sup> He further points to a sixth century Ethiopic inscription citing Psalm 65:19 from the \u201cPsalms of Dawit,\u201d the exact consonants on the Shishak Inscription. Kitchen summarizes: \u201cThis would give us a place name that commemorated David in the Negev barely fifty years after his death, within living memory of the man.\u201d21<\/sup> His conclusion is not without its critics, however, as some have suggested that ring 106 is difficult to decipher and may not read Dawit at all<\/em>, let alone reference David.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    2. Mesha Stele (Moabite Stone)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The Mesha Stele (Moabite Stone), in which Mesha, the king of Moab, records his victories against the Kingdom of Israel. It dates to ca. 800 BC and is from Dhiban (in modern-day Jordan). Photo: Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    The famous Meshe Stele (Moabite Stone) consists of 57 fragments which were purchased from bedouin in the 19th century, and assembled, along with a squeeze of the inscription which had been taken before the monument was broken. The stele, a black basalt monument measuring 1.5m (45.28\u201d) high by 60-80cm (23.6-31.5\u201d) wide, is a victory stele of Mesha, king of Moab. Written in Moabite, it describes the same events in 2 Kings 3, Moab\u2019s rebellion against Israelite subjection. In 1994, epigrapher, Andr\u00e9 Lemaire announced that he had detected a previously-overlooked letter, resulting in the phrase, \u201cHouse of David.\u201d He wrote: My own examination of the stone and the squeeze, which is now being restored and cleaned of accumulated dust, confirms that t <\/em>follows the b<\/em>. I would now, for the first time, reconstruct the missing letter as a d<\/em> (d). The result: bt[d]wd<\/em> (dw[d]tb), the \u201cHouse of [D]avid!\u201d22<\/sup> The relavent part of the inscription reads, \u201cAnd the house[of Da]vid dwelt in Horanaim [\u2026] and Chemosh said to me: \u2018Go down! Fight against Horanaim.\u2019 And I went down, and [I fought against the town, and I took it and] Chemosh [resto]red it in my days\u201d (lines 31-33).23<\/sup> In 2019, the Mesha Stele hit the news again when Israel Finkelstein, Nadav Na\u2019aman, and Thomas R\u00f6mer published a paper in the Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University analyzeing Line 31 on the Moabite Stone arguing the words in question refer to Balak, not the \u201cHouse of David.\u201d24<\/sup> Scholar, Michael Langlois, responded with an analysis published in the Journal Semitica<\/em>, which high resolution images and Polynomial Texture Mapping (PTM) of the stele to create a 3-D image. The new technology revealed a previously overlooked dot, indicating a break between words, which comes exactly after the area interpreted \u201cHouse of David,\u201d confirming Lemaire\u2019s initial reading.25<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    New imaging techniques by scholar, Michael Langois, improves the reading of the \u201cHouse of David\u201d inscription on the Moabite Stone. Image courtesy of Micahel Langois, <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    1. Tel Dan Stele<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    The Tel Dan Stele mentions the \u201cHouse of David\u201d (ie dynasty of David), affirming both David\u2019s historicity and the biblical description of his dynastic kingdom. Photo: Oren Rozen \/ Wikimedia Commons \/ CC BY-SA 4.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    The most significant artifact related to King David is most certainly the Tel Dan Stela. In 1993, archaeologists at Tel Dan unearthed a fragment of a monument (Fragment A), found in secondary use in the remains of a wall on the eastern section of a large pavement at the entrance to the city gate.26<\/sup> The next year two more fragments from the same monument were discovered (Fragment B). The fragments belong to a victory stele recording the expoits of the King of Aram (likely Hazael, although his name is not given) over the King of Israel, and his ally, the king of the \u201cHouse of David.\u201d It dates to the ninth century B.C., about 200 years after David\u2019s rule. Avraham Biran and Joseph Naveh, who published the Aramaic inscription, translated the relevant lines as: \u201c[I killed Jo]ram son of [Ahab] king of Israel, and [I] killed [Ahaz]iahu son of [Jehoram kin-]g of the House of David.\u201d27<\/sup> Archaeologist, Dr. Bryant Wood explains the historical context of the Tel Dan Stele: \u201cIt was most likely erected following Hazael\u2019s defeat of Joram and Ahaziah at Ramoth Gilead in ca. 841 BC (2 Kgs 8:28\u201329). The occasion for the breaking of the stela was probably when Jehoash, king of Israel from 798 to 782, recaptured Israelite territory previously taken by Hazael (2 Kgs 13:24\u201325). It appears that the monument stood in Dan near the city gate for over four decades. It was a constant reminder to the Israelites that they were subject to the Arameans.\u201d28<\/sup> The Tel Dan Stele establishes the historicity of King David, affirms the biblical description of his dynasty, and is a stunning rebuke to minimalists who once thought Israel\u2019s greatest king was no more than a mythical figure created by much later writers to give Israel a glorious backstory.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Conclusion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

    Thanks to the ongoing work of archaeologists and scholars, the existence of King David is no longer in doubt, and we are learning more with each passing year about the times in which he lived.  David, the warrior-poet wrote many Psalms, some of which prophesied the coming Messiah, who would save their people from their sins.  If Scripture can be trusted in what it says about the historical details of David\u2019s life, then I would suggest we can trust that it accurately records the words of David, including those that pointed to Jesus.   <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Cover Photo:<\/strong> The statue of King David in front of the Church of our Lady in Copenhagen. Credit: Christian Bickel \/ Wikimedia Commons \/ CC BY-SA 2.0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Endnotes<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    1 Boyd Seevers, Warefare in the Old Testament. <\/em>(Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2013), 61.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    2 Boyd Seevers in \u201cTaking Down Goliath: Slinging in the Ancient World.\u201d Digging For Truth.<\/em> , 14:43. (Accessed June 2, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    3 Aren M. Maeir et al., \u201cA Late Iron Age I\/Early Iron Age II Old Canaanite Inscription from Tell Es-Safi\/Gath, Israel: Palaeography, Dating, and Historical-Cultural Significance,\u201d BASOR, no. 351 (August 1, 2008): 57.  Online: ;(Accessed June 2, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    4 Aren M. Maeir, \u201cComment on the news item in BAR on the \u201cGoliath Inscription.\u201d The Tell es-Safi\/Gath Archaeological Project Official (and Unofficial) Weblog<\/em>. Feb. 16, 2006. ;(Accessed June 2, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    5 \u201cKing Seal Artifacts Attest to Hebron\u2019s Jewish History\u201d ;(Accessed June 5, 2021.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    6 Emanuel Eisenberg and David Ben-Shlomo, \u201cTel Hevron: Preliminary Report.\u201d Hadashot Arkheologiyot: Excavations and Surveys in Israel 128 (2016). ;(Accessed June 5, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    7 Jeffrey R. Chadwick, \u201cDiscovering Hebron.\u201d Biblical Archaeology Review.<\/em> 31.5, (September\/October 2005), 33.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    8 Ibid, 33.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    9 Rami Arav, Richard A. Freund, and John F. Shroder Jr., \u201cBethsaida Rediscovered.\u201d Biblical Archaeology Review<\/em>. 26:1, (January\/February 2000), 46.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    10 Na\u2019aman, Nadav. \u201cThe Kingdom of Geshur in History and Memory.\u201d Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament.<\/em> 26.1 (2012), 95.  Online: ;(Accessed June 5, 2021).  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    11 \u201cCultic stele, Bethsaida, Iron Age II, 9th-8th century BCE.\u201d From The Israel Museum<\/em>, Publisher: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2005. ;(Accessed June 5, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    12 Eilat Mazar, \u201cDid I Find King David\u2019s Palace?\u201d Biblical Archaeology Review<\/em>, January\/February 2006. Online: ;(Accessed June 5, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    13 Scott Stripling, The Trowel and the Truth<\/em> (Ramona: Vision Publishing, 2017), 104.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    14 Nadav Na\u2019aman, \u201cThe Interchange Between Bible and Archaeology: The case of David\u2019s Palace and the Millo.\u201d Biblical Archaeology Review.<\/em> 40:1, (January\/February 2014), 61.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    15 Randall Price and H. Wayne House, Zondervan Handbook of Biblical Archaeology<\/em> (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017), 121.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    16 Yosef Garfinkel and Saar Ganor, \u201cKhirbet Qeiyafa: Sha\u2019Arayim.\u201d The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures.<\/em> Vol. 8, Article 22, p. 5.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    17 Avraham Faust and Yair Sapir, \u201cUnited Monarchy, and the Impact of the Old-House Effect on Large-Scale Archaeological Reconstructions.\u201d Radiocarbon<\/em>, 60(3), 801-820. Online: ;(Accessed June 5, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    18 Lawrence Mykytiuk, \u201c53 People in the Bible Confirmed Archaeologically.\u201d Biblical Archaeology Society.<\/em> April 12, 2017. ;(Accessed June 6, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    19 Scott Stripling, The Trowel and the Truth<\/em> (Ramona: Vision Publishing, 2017), 106.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    20 K. A. Kitchen, On The Reliability of the Old Testament.<\/em> (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006), 93.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    21 Ibid, 93.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    22 Andr\u00e9 Lemaire, \u201c\u2019House of David\u2019 Restored in Moabite Inscription.\u201d Biblical Archaeology Review. <\/em>20:3, (May\/June 1994), 36.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    23 Bryant G. Wood, \u201cMesha, King of Moab\u201d Associates for Biblical Research.<\/em> September27, 2006. ;(Accessed June 7, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    24 Amanda Borschel-Dan, \u201cHigh-tech study of ancient stone suggests new proof of King David\u2019s dynasty.\u201d Times of Israel<\/em>, May 3, 2019.  ;(Accessed June 7, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    25 Michael Langois, \u201cThe Kings, the City and the House of David on the Mesha Stele in Light of New Imaging Techniques.\u201d Semitica<\/em> 61, 2019, p. 23-47. Online: \u201323-47.pdf (Accessed June 7, 2021).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    26 Avraham Biran and Joseph Naveh, \u201cAn Aramaic Stele Fragment from Tel Dan.\u201d Israel Exploration Journal<\/em> 43 (1993): 81.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    27 Avraham Biran and Joseph Naveh, \u201cThe Tel Dan Inscription: A New Fragment.\u201d Israel Exploration Journal<\/em> 45 (1995): 13.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    28 Bryant G. Wood, \u201cThe Tel Dan Stela and the Kings of Aram and Israel.\u201d Associates for Biblical Research.<\/em> May 4, 2011.  ;(accessed June 7, 2021).<\/p>\n<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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