FOOTSTEPS

• The breaking of the independence of the powerful Nomarchs under Senusret/Sesostris III (Gen. 47:20)
• Slavery as an institution of society flourished in Egypt during the Middle Kingdom
• The Hieratic Papyrus (ca. 12th to 13th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom) records a list of the names of slaves, including 30 non-Egyptian names, some of which are identical or at least similar to names in the Old Testament.
• Joseph marries Asaneth, a daughter of the priest of On (Gen. 41:45), where the chief god, Re was worshiped, who was the supreme Egyptian deity during the Middle Kingdom (as opposed to the Hyksos period, when the god, Set, was the primary god).
• Egyptian names and titles in the biblical account are well-attested from this period in Egyptian history.³

If Joseph did indeed live and serve during the 12^th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, where might he have visited?  What sort of things would he have seen?

Itj-Tawy

Throughout history, different cities served as the capital of Egypt.  The 11th Dynasty Pharaohs ruled from Thebes. When Amenemhat I came to power and founded the 12th Dynasty, he moved the capital of Egypt to Itj-Tawy, located in the Faiyum region.⁴ This was likely so he could distance himself from the previous Dynasty and consolidate his power.  Both Senusret II (the likely pharaoh of the years of plenty) and Senusret III (the likely pharaoh of the years of famine) ruled from Itj-Tawy, Thus, Joseph was no doubt familiar with the palace at Itj-Tawy and may have lived in the city himself so as to be nearby to fulfill his administrative duties.

In her 2012 TED talk, space archaeologist, Sarah Parcak, announced that she and her team used satellite imagery to locate the lost city of Itj-Tawy.  They analyzed NASA topographical data to determine where the Nile River used to flow (west of its current path), and spotted a raised area nearby.  Core samples taken at the site revealed pottery dating to the 12^th Dynasty and precious stones – carnelian, quartz, and agate – the most common used in jewelry in the Middle Kingdom.⁵  A full-scale excavation would be needed to confirm this identification. 

Not far from Itj-Tawy are the pyramids of Senusret II and Senusret III.   Given Joseph’s long life, he outlived both pharaohs whom he had worked under.  We can imagine Joseph watching the funeral procession to Senusret II’s pyramid in nearby El-Lahun, and paying his respects by the pyramid of Senusret III at Dahshur.

On (Heliopolis)

Another location Joseph likely knew well was the city of On.  In Gen. 41:45 we read that “Pharaoh called Joseph’s name Zaphenath-paneah. And he gave him in marriage Asenath, the daughter of Potiphera priest of On.”  Known in Egyptian as iwnw, and in the Greek as Heliopolis, today its ruins can be found in a suburb of Cairo, Egypt.  Joseph’s father-in-law, Potiphara, was a priest at the temple to Re there.⁶  Since Asenath was given to Joseph as an honor, it may be that her father, Potiphara, was the high priest at the temple and one of the leading religious figures in Egypt at that time.⁷  While Joseph did not share his father-in-law’s religious beliefs, it is not a stretch to think that Joseph spent time in the city of his wife’s family. Little remains today of the ancient city save for one obelisk that towers 65 feet in the air.  It was once part of the entry facade to the temple and has been standing in place for 4000 years.  This obelisk was no doubt a sight that Joseph was familiar with.

Rowaty (later Avaris, then Rameses)

When Joseph’s family arrived in Egypt, he coached them to tell Pharaoh that they were shepherds so that they would be allowed to settle in the land of Goshen (Gen 46:34).  This area was located East of the Nile in the Delta region.⁸ Genesis 47:11 further records that “Joseph settled his father and his brothers in Egypt and gave them property in the best part of the land, the district of Rameses, as Pharaoh directed.”  Later, the people of Israel would build the city of Rameses as slave laborers (Ex 1:11) and when the Exodus occurred, they left from Rameses (Ex 12:37).  The name, “Rameses,” in the biblical text, is likely a scribal update to use a term that later Israelites were familiar with. Rameses the Great, who the region is named after, lived in the 13th century, almost 200 years after the Exodus according to biblical chronology.⁹  The location of the city of Rameses is known today, thanks to the archaeological excavations led by Manfred Bietek of the Austrian Archaeological Institute at Tell el-Dab’a.  We now know that the city of Rameses was built here upon a previous city, the Hyksos capital of Avaris.

Tell el-Dab’a, was on the main road from Egypt into Canaan.  According to Bietak’s research, it was settled sometime in the 19th century during the 12th Dynasty by Asiatics and was originally called Rowaty. It was not a fortified city, but rather a rural settlement with evidence of pens or stalls for keeping animals.¹⁰ This is the exact time Joseph’s family came to live in Egypt.  Moreover, one of the dwellings at Rowaty was significantly bigger than the others and was obviously the home of an important Egyptian official.  Interestingly, the floor plan of this official’s villa is identical to the Israelite four-room house of the later Iron Age.¹¹  A series of graves to the southwest of the villa were excavated and it was discovered that those buried within were Asiatic, even though the graves themselves were constructed of mud bricks as the Egyptians did.¹²  The evidence – the right stuff in the right place at the right time – suggests that this may have been the home of one of Joseph’s family members.

Summary

Some view the Bible as a work of fiction, more myth than reality. Some would argue that Joseph is no more historical than Bilbo Baggins in The Lord of the Rings. While no inscription naming Joseph (Zaphenath-paneah) has yet been discovered, the evidence suggests that the Egyptian culture in which Joseph lived is accurately described in the biblical account.  The places mentioned are known from history, and what is said about them in the pages of Scripture has been affirmed through archaeological research.  Understanding the sites that Joseph was likely familiar with, helps to contextualize his life and see that the Bible is a historically reliable document.

Title Photo: Model of the gateway of the Temple at On as it would have appeared in a later period, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund – Brooklyn Museum / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Endnotes:

1 Andrew E. Steinmann, From Abraham To Paul: A Biblical Chronology. (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2011), 76.

2 Charles F. Aling, “Is the Biblical story of Joseph in Egypt verified?” ChristianAnswers.net. ;(Accessed June 10, 2019).

3 I highly recommend Dr. Aling’s six-part series, Joseph in Egypt, published in Bible and Spade magazine and available online here:  Part I, Part II, Part III, Part IV, Part V, and Part VI.

4 Joshua J. Mark, “Senusret III.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. July 26, 2017. ;(Accessed February 9, 2019).

5 Kate Torgovnick May, “Gallery: Archaeological mysteries hidden in satellite images,” Ideas.Ted.com, Feb 17, 2016 ;(Accessed June 12, 2019).

6 Charles Aling, “Joseph in Egypt – Part IV,” Associates for Biblical Research. ;(Accessed June 12, 2019).

7 Charles Aling, Egypt and Bible History. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1981), 46.

8 “Goshen.” BibleHub.com. ;(Accessed February 10, 2019).

9 A good summary of the verses that point to an early date for the Exodus (and by implication the conquest 40 years later) in the 15^th century B.C. can be found in the following episodes of Digging for Truth:  addition, these episodes of Digging for Truth highlight the archaeological evidence for an early Exodus/Conquest: 

10 Bryant G. Wood, “The Sons of Jacob: New Evidence for the Presence of the Israelites in Egypt.” Associates for Biblical Research. Jan. 26, 2016. ;(Accessed June 12, 2019).

11 Ibid.

12 Ibid.

Capernaum was a village that the Apostle Peter knew well.  As a fisherman, he had made Capernaum his base of operations (Mark 1:16,21) and owned a house there where he and his extended family lived (Matt. 8:5,14).  As a follower of Jesus, who had chosen Capernaum as his ministry headquarters (Matt. 4:13), Peter spent much time in the city, watching Jesus heal people (Mark 1:23, 30, 34) and teach (Luke 4:31; Mark 9:33-37). JULY 8, 2019BRYAN WINDLE

In the first century, Capernaum was a significant town of about 1500 people located near the Via Maris (The Way of the Sea), an important international trade route that linked Damascus with the Mediterranean.¹ Being on the trade route meant that the fishing and farming industries thrived in the area. Capernaum was also situated within the tetrarchy of Herod Antipas², and was populated with administrative officials, such as Matthew the tax-collector (Matt. 9:1,9), as well as soldiers (Matt. 8:5).

Today the ruins of Capernaum at Tell Hum are a popular tourist destination on the shore of the Sea of Galilee.  Tell Hum was first identified as Capernaum in 1866 by British engineer and explorer, Captain Charles Wilson.³  Archaeological exploration at Capernaum began in 1905, with further excavations carried out by the Franciscans (who own the western portion of the site) in the 1920’s and from 1968-1987, and again in the early 2000’s.⁴  Archaeologists also dug at the northeastern site, owned by the Greek Orthodox Church, from 1978-1987.⁵  These excavations uncovered the remains of Capernaum as it was in Peter’s day, and in the time periods following.  Here are three things which Peter likely saw in Capernaum.

The Harbor of Capernaum

As a fisherman living in Capernaum, Peter was, no doubt, very familiar with the harbor.  Scripture records that he owned a boat from which he often fished (Luke 5:3-7).  We also see him fishing with a net from shore, near Capernaum (Mark 1:16-21) when Jesus first calls him to be his disciple.  When Jesus came to the disciples walking on the water, they were in a boat heading to Capernaum and, after taking him into the boat, they “reached the shore where they were heading.” (John 6:17-21).

The ancient harbour of Capernaum lay undiscovered until Mendel Nun began surveying the shore of the Sea of Galilee in search of ancient ports.  Nun, a fisherman himself and the foremost expert on ancient harbours on the sea of Galilee, described the port at Capernaum as he found it:

“Along the shore ran a 2,500-foot-long promenade, or paved avenue, supported by an 8-foot-wide seawall…. Vessels at Capernaum could load and unload cargo and passengers on several piers that extended about 100 feet from the promenade into the lake. Some of the piers are paired and curve toward each other, forming protected pools. Others are triangular in shape.”⁶

It is at this port that Peter likely docked his boat many times. When the water level of the Sea of Galilee is low, the remains of the Capernaum harbour  can be seen along the shore, near the northern portion that is owned by the Greek Orthodox church.

The Synagogue of Capernaum

After calling Peter, Andrew, James and John as his disciples, Jesus led them to Capernaum where he went into the synagogue and began to teach (Mark 1:16-21).  As a resident of Capernaum, Peter had likely been to the synagogue many times before.  As a follower of Jesus, he witnessed numerous miracles and lessons from his Master at the synagogue at Capernaum.  It is where Jesus cast a demon out of a man (Mark 1:23-26) and healed a man with a withered hand (Mark 3:1-6).  It is also where Jesus taught that he was the Bread of Life (John 6:48, 59).

Today the impressive remains of a white limestone synagogue are prominent at Capernaum.  Based on coins found beneath the floors, this synagogue dates to the 4^th or 5^th centuries AD.⁷  Excavations by Corbo and Loffreda have revealed that it was built upon the foundation of a prior structure made of black basalt stone, which was slightly out of line with the foundations of the later synagogue.⁸ Pottery, discovered beneath the floor of the black basalt foundations, dated that structure to the first century.⁹ Scholars have concluded that the black basalt stones are the remains of the foundation of the first-century synagogue, and that the white limestone synagogue was built over it, in keeping with the Jewish tradition of building on sacred spaces.  This then, is likely the synagogue that Peter frequently attended.

Peter’s House in Capernaum

One of the first miracles Jesus performed in Capernaum occurred in the home of Peter and Andrew; it was here that Jesus healed Peter’s mother-in-law (Mark 1:29-31).

In 1968, Stanislao Loffreda began excavating the octagonal Byzantine church just south of the synagogue.  His investigations revealed that the Byzantine church had been built overtop of a home that had been inhabited in the first century.  The discovery of Herodian oil lamps helped date this structure.¹⁰ The excavators concluded that about 50 years after the resurrection of Jesus, the main room had been enlarged and plastered and converted to a domus ecclesia (house church).¹¹ Fragments of painted plaster from the structure, bearing graffiti from the third and fourth centuries AD of Christian symbols and invocations to Christ, demonstrate that the site was venerated by early Christian pilgrams.¹²  The writings of Egeria (ca. 380 AD) and the anonymous pilgrim of Piacenza (ca. 570 AD) testify to the early belief that the church in Capernaum was built on top of the house of the Apostle Peter.¹³

It seems that the Byzantines built their church atop a site that had been venerated for centuries as the house of Peter, the site of Jesus’ miracle.  While a 100% positive identification is impossible, the archaeological evidence of an early Christian church meeting in a first-century home in Capernaum suggests that it may indeed be the remains of Peter’s house.

Summary

As we walk in the footsteps of people named in Scripture, archaeology lets us travel back in time, as it were, to view the sites as people living in biblical times would have seen them.  This helps us to contextualize the written accounts and see them as historical documents.

When Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John each wrote their biographies of Jesus, they were describing real events, set in real places, at a real point in history.  Matthew and John were eyewitnesses to the events, while Mark wrote down Peter’s teaching¹⁴ and Luke claims to have carefully investigated the events (Luke 1:3).  The village of Capernaum that each describe lines with what we know from the archaeological ruins of the town. This is what we would expect from eyewitness, and carefully investigated accounts.

Title Picture: Isrealtourism/Wikimedia Commons/CC By 2.0

Endnotes

1 David Padfield, “Capernaum: The City of Jesus.” Pg. 2. ;(Accessed June 26, 2019).

2 ;(Accessed June 29, 2019).

3 John C. H. Laughlin, “Capernaum: From Jesus’ Time and After,” Biblical Archaeology Review, 19:5 (September/October 1993): 54.

4 “Excavations at Capernaum,” Custodia Terrae Sanctae: Franciscans Serving the Holy Land. ;(Accessed June 26, 2019).

5 John C. H. Laughlin, “Capernaum: From Jesus’ Time and After,” Biblical Archaeology Review, 19:5 (September/October 1993): 56.

6 Mendel Nun, “Ports of Galilee,” Biblical Archaeology Review, 25:4 (July/August 1999): 26.

7 Joseph M. Holden and Norman Geisler, The Popular Handbook of Archaeology and the Bible, (Eugene: Harvest House Publisher, 2013), 362.

8 John McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament, (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1991), 163-164.

9 Ibid, 164.

10 “Excavations at Capernaum,” Custodia Terrae Sanctae: Franciscans Serving the Holy Land. ;(Accessed June 26, 2019).

11 Ibid.

12 Ibid.

13 Eric M. Myers and Mark A. Chancey, Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2012), 191.

14 J. Warner Wallace, “Is Mark’s Gospel an Early Memoir of Peter?” ColdCaseChristianity.com, July 25, 2018.  (Accessed June 29, 2019).

Archaeology is a valuable tool which allows us to travel back in time, so to speak, and walk in the footsteps of the people described in the pages of Scripture.  Viewing the things these individuals saw allows us to contextualize and understand the biblical text.  As part of this “Footsteps” series, we’ve gone back in time to see things that Joseph likely would have seen in Egypt, and things Peter probably saw in Capernaum.  In this article, we’ll focus on Jesus in Jerusalem. JULY 13, 2019BRYAN WINDLE

The New Testament biographies of Jesus – Matthew, Mark, Luke and John – record that Jesus made regular trips to Jerusalem.  As a first-century, Jewish man, he made the required pilgrimages to celebrate the Jewish feasts (ie. Feast of Unleavened Bread – Matt. 26:17; Feast of Tabernacles – John 7:2,10; Feast of Dedication – John 10:22; Purim¹ – John 5:1, etc.).  Here are three things Jesus likely saw during his time in Jerusalem.

Pool of Siloam

In one of the gospels, we read about how Jesus healed a blind man: “He spit on the ground and made mud with the saliva. Then he anointed the man’s eyes with the mud and said to him, ‘Go, wash in the pool of Siloam.’ (which means Sent). So he went and washed and came back seeing.” (John 9:6-7  ESV)  The Pool of Siloam was evidently nearby and obviously a place with which Jesus was familiar.  In fact, most Jews who came to Jerusalem were familiar with the Pool of Siloam, since, during the Feast of Tabernacles, a priest drew water from this pool in a golden vessel and carried it in a procession back to the Temple.²

For many years, people identified a small pool where water emerges from Hezekiah’s Tunnel as the Pool of Siloam. This is where a Byzantine church had been built by the Empress Eudocia to commemorate the miracle of the blind man.³

In 2004, workers repairing a drainage pipe located a short distance away from the Byzantine pool, unearthed several large, stone steps.  Archaeologists, Eli Shukrun and Ronny Reich were called in and unearthed a large pool that was in use during the first century, which most scholars now believe is the Pool of Siloam of Jesus’ day.⁴ This pool was dated using coins and pottery found during the excavations.  Four coins of Alexander Jannaeus (ca. 103–76 BC) were found in the plaster of the original steps, dating it’s construction to the late Hasmonean/early Hellenistic period.  Near one of the corners of the pool in a plaza or terrace, the excavators found Second-Temple pottery and coins from the First Jewish Revolt (66-70 AD).⁵  Thus, this large pool was likely used from the late Hasmonean/early Hellenistic period through to the destruction of Jerusalem in the latter half of the first century.  It is almost certain that this is the Pool of Siloam which Jesus was familiar with and in which the blind man was healed.

The Temple

Early, eyewitness testimony records that Jesus frequently went to the Temple while he was in Jerusalem (Matt. 21:12; 24:1; Mark 11:27; 12:35; John 5:14; 7:14; 8:2, 20: 10:23).  The main gates, used by most pilgrims coming to the Temple, were the Double and Triple Gates (or the Huldah Gates), located on the southern side of the temple mount.⁶  Early Rabbinic sources testify that the two Huldah Gates in the south were used for entering an exiting the Temple (Mishnah Middot 1:3; 2:2).⁷  The fact that many ritual baths, called Mikvoit (or Mikveh, in the singular) have been discovered in this area, testify to the importance of these gates.⁸

The Double and Triple Gates, as well as the southern steps leading up to them, are still visible today.  The southern Temple Mount area was unearthed in excavations led by Benjamin Mazar from 1968-78, and under Ronny Reich in the 1990’s.  A number of discoveries, including the southern steps, a first century road, numerous ritual baths, and the famous Trumpeting inscription, all add to our understanding of the function of the temple in the time of Jesus.⁹   In front of the Double Gate, Mazar unearthed a massive staircase, 215 feet wide with 30 steps constructed of trimmed paving blocks, which have since been restored.⁹  Undoubtedly, Jesus used these steps many times to enter and exit the Temple precincts.

Once inside, the temple complex itself was divided into several courtyards.  The Court of the Gentiles was the closest area that gentiles and ritually impure people could get to the temple itself.  Between this courtyard and the inner courts of the temple precinct, there was a wall on which were warning signs in both Greek and Latin that forbade foreigners from going beyond that point.  Josephus describes these warning signs in two passages:

“When you go through these [first] cloisters, unto the second [court of the] temple, there was a partition made of stone, all round; whose height was three cubits, its construction was very elegant. Upon it stood pillars, at equal distances from one another; declaring the law of purity, some in Greek and some in Roman letters; that no foreigner should go within that sanctuary.” (War 5.5.2)¹⁰

“Thus was the first enclosure. In the midst of which, and not far from it, was the second: to be gone up to by a few steps. This was encompassed by a stone wall, for a partition: with an inscription, which forbade any foreigner to go in under pain of death.” (Antiquities 15.11.5)¹¹

In 1871, one of these warning signs was discovered in Jerusalem.  The limestone slab had a seven-line inscription which reads:  “Foreigners must not enter inside the balustrade or into the forecourt around the sanctuary.  Whoever is caught will have himself to blame for his ensuing death.”¹²  In 1935 a second fragmentary temple warning inscription was discovered outside of the Old City of Jerusalem near the Lion’s Gate.  Jesus and his disciples would have seen these warning inscriptions many times as they entered the temple precincts.

Herod’s Palace

Two buildings dominated the landscape of first-century Jerusalem: the Temple and Herod’s palace.  Jesus would have, no-doubt, seen the three great towers of Herod the Great’s palace, which he named in honor his friends and relatives: Hippicus, Phasael, and Miriamne.  The base of one of these ancient towers still stands today near the Jaffa Gate and is popularly, if erroneously, known as the “Tower of David.”  Many identify this tower as Phasael, although Hillel Geva has argued that it is the remains of Hippicus.¹³  While Jesus was likely familiar with Herod’s palace from the outside, is there any evidence that he was ever inside this famous building?  I believe there is.

When Pontius Pilate interrogated Jesus, he was taken to the “palace of the Roman governor” (John 18:28), which was one and the same as the Praetorium. (Mark 15:16).

When Herod’s son Archelaus was deposed by the Romans in 6 AD, they confiscated his possessions.  Herod’s magnificent palace then became the residence for the Roman governor whenever he visited Jerusalem.  Philo of Alexandria, a contemporary of Jesus, described Herod’s Palace as “the residence of the prefects;” Josephus also identified the residence of Roman governors with Herod’s palace.¹⁴

Archaeologist, Shimon Gibson states, “Today, a consensus of opinion exists among scholars that Herod’s Palace on the west side of the city was the same as the Praetorium and that in its immediate vicinity Jesus was tried and condemned to death.”¹⁵

Part of Herod’s palace can be seen today near the Tower of David Museum, beneath the “Kishle,” an Ottoman-era prison.  The massive Herodian walls are visible at the lowest level, with various other layers of construction through the ages built on top of them.

Summary  

Viewing the places in Jerusalem that Jesus would have seen is a helpful way to enter the biblical text and develop a greater understanding of the geographical, historical, and cultural background of the world in which Jesus lived.  Many places in the Jerusalem of Jesus’ day have been excavated and the findings affirm the accurate descriptions of these places found in the gospels.

Title Picture: Chris Yunker / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 2.0

Endnotes

1 Gordon Franz, “Jesus Celebrated Purim,” March 5, 2003. ;(Accessed June 9, 2019).

2 “The Pool of Siloam,” in NIV Archaeological Study Bible (ed. Walter C. Kaiser Jr and Duane Garrett; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 1739.

3 Hershel Shanks, “The Siloam Pool: Where Jesus Cured The Blind Man,” Biblical Archaeology Review, 31:5 (September/October 2005): 18, 21 .

4 Todd Bolen, “The Pool of Siloam Revealed,” BiblePlaces.com. ;(Accessed June 4, 2019).

5 Hershel Shanks, “The Siloam Pool: Where Jesus Cured The Blind Man,” Biblical Archaeology Review, 31:5 (September/October 2005): 21.

6 Leen Ritmeyer, “The Beautiful Gate of the Temple in Jerusalem,” Ritmeyer Archaeological Design, Dec. 14, 2010.  ;(Accessed July 9, 2019).

7 Ferrell Jenkins, “The Double and Triple Gates of the Temple Mount,” Ferrell’s Travel Blog, May 30, 2017. ;(Accessed July 9, 2019).

8 Todd Bolen, “Southern Temple Mount,” Bible Places. ;(Accessed July 9, 2019).

9 John McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1991), 106.

10 Josephus, War of the Jews, 5.5.2.  Online: ;(Accessed July 9, 2019).

11 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 15.11.5. Online: ;(Accessed July 9, 2019).

12 Carl Rasmussen, “Warning to Gentiles from the Days of Jesus — Inscriptions,” Holy Land Photos, ;(Accessed July 9, 2019).

13 Hillel Giva, “The ‘Tower of David’—Phasael or Hippicus?” Israel Exploration Journal 31, no. 1/2 (1981): 57-65. ;(Accessed July 11, 2019).

14 John McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1991), 118-119.

15 Shimon Gibson, The Final Days of Jesus: The Archaeological Evidence, (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2009), 91.

Three Things in Canaan that Joshua Likely Saw People who have traveled to the Holy Land often say they never read the Bible the same way again.  This is because they can now picture the places where the events occurred.  In a similar way, archaeology allows us to view the places where biblical events occurred and see the things that biblical people saw. In this series, we’ve walked in the footsteps of Joseph, Peter, and Jesus to view the world they lived in.  In this article we’ll explore three things Joshua saw when he entered the Promised Land of Canaan. JULY 20, 2019BRYAN WINDLE

The Walls of Jericho

When the Israelites crossed the Jordan River under the leadership of Joshua, the first city they attacked was Jericho.  This wasn’t just the first city they happened upon; Jericho was strategically located at the entrance to the central highlands of Canaan.  Dr. Bryant Wood explains:

“From Jericho one has access to the heartland of Canaan. Any military force attempting to penetrate the central hill country from the east would, by necessity, first have to capture Jericho. And that is exactly what the Bible (Joshua 3:16) says the Israelites did.”¹

Excavations at Tell es-Sultan, the site of Old Testament Jericho, reveal that it was an awe-inspiring city, with “walls up to the sky” (Deut. 9:1).

Jericho had not one wall, but two: an inner wall and an outer wall.  The outer mud brick wall had been built atop a retaining wall. Between the two walls was a sloped embankment, with an upper wall encircling the inner city.  Excavators, Sellin and Watzinger, discovered that the retaining wall was 12-15 ft high, with a 20-26 ft high mudbrick wall on top of that.  At the top of the embankment, was another mudbrick wall.² These walls had been constructed in the Middle Bronze age³, and stood until the destruction of Jericho under Joshua in the Late Bronze Age, ca. 1406 BC⁴.

Today the remains of these walls can be seen at Tell es-Sultan.  Portions of the retaining, or revetment wall are still standing, and some of the fallen mudbricks from the outer wall are still visible at the base.  Interestingly, the German excavation team of 1907-09 discovered a portion of the wall on the north side of the city that had not fallen.⁵ Moreover, there were houses built on the rampart against the outer city wall.  This affirms the biblical record, which states that the house of Rahab, which was built against the city wall, was intact after the walls of Jericho fell (Josh. 6:22), implying that that section of the wall did not fall.  This may be the area of the city in which Rahab’s house was located.

Visitors to Jericho today, can see the remains of the very walls that Joshua saw when he conquered the city.

The Gate of Ai

Joshua 7 & 8 describe two battles that took place at the fortress of Ai.  After an initial defeat, the Israelites succeeded in taking the city and burning it.  Joshua ordered that the king of Ai be killed and that his body be thrown at the entrance to the fortress gate and a pile of stones be raised over him (Josh. 8:29).

The location of the fortress of Ai was a matter of debate for many years.  However, it appears that that debate has been settled and Ai has been found, thanks to the excavations of the Associates for Biblical Research.  From 1995-2017, ABR excavated at Khirbet el-Maqatir, and unearthed a fortified settlement from the time of Joshua that had been destroyed by fire.  Khirbet el-Maqatir meets all of the biblical requirements for the site of Ai.⁶

One of the major discoveries at Khirbet el-Maqatir was the gate system on the north side of the fortress (Josh. 8:11).  A four-chambered gate was unearthed, with two of its socket stones found in the gate passageway itself and four others discovered nearby.  The bones of the king were not discovered, however, as the gate chambers had been cleared out in antiquity and used for other purposes, including a wine press during the Late Hellenistic/Early Roman era.⁷

The archaeologists and volunteers who excavated with the Associates for Bibilcal Research were likely viewing the very gate of the fortress of Ai that was conquered by the Israelite army led by Joshua himself (Josh. 8:2).

The City of Shechem

At the end of the conquest, Joshua gathered the tribes of Israel at Shechem to renew the covenant with God.  In Joshua 24:25-26 we read, “So Joshua made a covenant with the people that day, and put in place statutes and rules for them at Shechem.  And Joshua wrote these words in the Book of the Law of God. And he took a large stone and set it up there under the terebinth that was by the sanctuary of the LORD.” (ESV)

Tell Balata was identified as ancient Shechem by a group of German scholars in 1903, and excavations were conducted there in 1913-14 and 1926-36 under the direction of Ernst Sellin.  Digs later resumed in 1956 under G.E. Wright and B.W. Anderson, and again in 1973, led by William Dever.⁸   Among the structures unearthed were the massive, Middle Bronze Age city walls and the Northwest Gate – a triple gate with a narrow opening that only permitted one chariot at a time to get through it.⁹  A second city gate

on the east side of Shechem was also discovered.  Dr. Carl Rasmussen states, “The [East] gate, like the associated Cyclopean Wall, dates to the end of the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 1650-1550 BC) and continued in use during the Late Bronze Age.”¹⁰   Shechem was destroyed around 1540 BC, likely by the Egyptians,¹¹ but was rebuilt and the Middle Bronze Age fortification system repaired and reused.  The massive Middle Bronze age wall still towers over 30 feet high.  Joshua would have seen both the wall and the East Gate when he arrived at Shechem to renew the covenant with the tribes of Israel.

On the acropolis of Shechem, excavators discovered a fortress temple, an alter and a large massabah, or “standing stone.”  The fortress temple – the largest yet discovered in Canaan – was constructed in the 17^th century BC and was in use until Abimelech destroyed the city in the 12^th century BC.¹²   It has been identified as the Temple of Baal-berith mentioned in Judges 9:4, 46.  The giant limestone massabah, is estimated to have been 6.6 ft (2m) tall and, although it has been broken, it still stands today at a height of 4.8 ft (1.45m).¹³  This may, in fact, be the “large stone” in the “sanctuary of the LORD” that Joshua erected at Shechem.   Edward Campbell and James Ross conclude: “The stone and the sanctuary may well have been the large massabah and the temple of the Late Bronze age.  Certainly these were standing in the early Israelite period and for some time to come.  And since the sanctuary is associated with Yahweh, it is probable that Israel used the Late Bronze temple for her own cultic purposes.”¹⁴

Summary

Many of the sites that Joshua encountered when he led the Israelites into the land of Canaan have been unearthed and portions are visible today.  The remains of the places that Joshua saw allow scholars to learn more about the land of Canaan.  This helps us understand the biblical text, and the conquest in particular, with greater clarity.

Endnotes

1 Bryant Wood, “Did the Israelites Conquer Jericho? A New Look at the Archaeological Evidence,” BAR 16:2 (1990): 45.  Online: ;(Accessed July 15, 2019).

2 Bryant Wood, “The Walls of Jericho,” Associates for Biblical Research. June 9, 2008. ;(Accessed July 16, 2019).

3 Lorenzo Nigro, “TELL ES-SULTAN 2015 A Pilot Project for Archaeology in Palestine,” Near Easter Archaeology 79:1 (2016), 14.  Online: ;(Accessed July 16, 2019).

4 Bryan Windle, “Biblical Sites: Three Ways to Date the Destruction at Jericho,” Bible Archaeology Report, May 17, 2019. ;(Accessed July 16, 2019).

5 Bryant Wood, “The Walls of Jericho,” Associates for Biblical Research. June 9, 2008. ;(Accessed July 16, 2019).

6 Bryan Windle, “Biblical Sites: The Lost City of Ai…Found,” Bible Archaeology Report, April 12, 2019. ;(Accessed July 17, 2019).

7 Scott Stripling, “Khirbet el-Maqatir: A Proposed New Location for Ai and Ephriam,” Associates for Biblical Research, March 9, 2015. ;(Accessed July 17, 2019).

8 David G. Hansen, “Shechem: It’s Archaeological and Contextual Significance,” Bible and Spade (Spring 2005). Online: ;(Accessed July 19, 2019).

9 William G. Dever, “Archaeological Sources for the History of Palestine: The Middle Bronze Age: The Zenith of the Urban Canaanite,”  The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 50, No. 3 (Sep., 1987), 155. Online: ;(Accessed July 19, 2019).

10 Carl Rasmussen, “East City Gate,” Holy Land Photos. ;(Accessed July 19, 2019).

11 David G. Hansen, “Shechem: It’s Archaeological and Contextual Significance,” Bible and Spade (Spring 2005). Online: ;(Accessed July 19, 2019).

12 Bryant G. Wood, “Abimelech at Shechem,” Bible and Spade (Spring 2005). Online: ;(Accessed July 19, 2019).

13 Ibid.

14 Edward F. Campbell, Jr and James F. Ross, “The Excavation of Shechem and the Biblical Tradition,” The Biblical Archaeologist. Vol. 26, No. 1 (Feb., 1963), 11. Online:  (Accessed July 19, 2019).

In 605 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II, King of Babylon, attacked Jerusalem and took as captive some of the royal family and nobility.  Among these exiles was a group of young men named Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah (Dan. 1:6).  They were taught the language and ways of the Babylonians to prepare them for service in the King’s courts (Dan. 1:4).  For the next 65+ years in Babylon, Daniel lived in Babylon through the reigns of successive Babylonian Kings and into the reign of the Persian King, Cyrus (Dan. 1:21;6:28) in 539 BC.

Babylon was a spectacular city!  Nebuchadnezzar had initiated a vast building program and improved the city’s fortifications, raising its magnificence to new heights.At the time Daniel lived there, it was the largest city in the world, covering over 10 square kilometers (4 square miles).¹

Serious investigation of the ruins of Babylon began in the late 1800’s, first with industrial-scale digging by the British Museum from 1879-1882, and then with systematic and scientific excavations led by Robert Koldewey of the German Oriental Society.²Over the course of 18 seasons, Koldewey excavated numerous parts of the city, including the Ishtar Gate, the Processional Way, which led to the Temple of Marduk, and the palaces of Nebuchadnezzar.  Here are three things which Koldewey unearthed that Daniel would have seen in Babylon.

The Palaces of Nebuchadnezzar

At the end of their time of training, Daniel and his friends were presented to King Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 1:18); this undoubtedly took place in his palace.  Daniel came before Nebuchadnezzar numerous times in his service to the king (Dan. 2:25; 4:8), and thus, was likely very familiar with both the Northern and Southern palaces in Babylon.

Nebuchadnezzar was a prolific builder and left numerous inscriptions about his building projects.  In one inscription, he describes how he rebuilt the palace of his father:

“I tore down its walls of dried brick, and laid its corner-stone bare and reached the depth of the waters. Facing the water, I laid its foundation firmly, and raised it mountain high with bitumen and burnt brick.  Mighty cedars I caused to be laid down at length for its roofing.  Door leaves of cedar overlaid with copper, thresholds and sockets of bronze I placed in its doorway.  Silver and gold and precious stones, all that can be imagined of costliness, splendor, wealth, riches, all that was highly esteemed I heaped up within it, I stored immense abundance of royal treasure within it.”³

In 1987, Saddam Saddam Hussein ordered the Southern Palace of King Nebuchadnezzar to rebuilt on top of the remains of ancient building. No regard was given to the archaeological past which he was erasing.  In his hubris, Hussein had the new structure built of brinks inscribed with both his name and that of Nebuchadnezzar.⁴ Thankfully, the remains of the Northern Palace are largely undisturbed.

The Temple of Marduk

Two great structures dominated the center of the ancient city of Babylon: the Temple of Marduk, called the Esagila, and the great ziggurat, called the Etemenanki.⁵ When Koldewey excavated the Esagila in the early 1900’s, he discovered numerous inscriptions about the rebuilding of the Temple.  Nebuchadnezzar, who called himself the “fosterer of Esagila” claimed, “My heart impels me to build Esagila” which he described as “the chamber of Majesty, the chamber of the lordship of the wise one among the god, the exalted Marduk.”⁶ Nebuchadnezzar boasts: “Silver, gold, costly precious stones, bronze, mismakannu – and cedar wood, all conceivable valuables…as sumptuous gift, I brought to my city of Babil before him and deposited in Esagila, the palace of his lordship, a gigantic abundance.  Ekua, the chamber of Marduk, lord of the gods, I made to gleam like the sun.”⁷

This description takes on interesting significance in light of the biblical account of Nebuchadnezzar taking the vessels from the Temple in Jerusalem and bringing them to the “house of his god” and placing them in the “treasury of his god” (Dan. 1:2).

Scholar, John C. Lennox, writes, “It may well have been in the Esagila temple complex that Nebuchadnezzar had his treasure house.  It was presumably much like a museum, with suites of rooms containing innumerable beautiful and valuable artifacts – the very best of the “tribute” (booty, really!).”.⁸  When Cyrus, King of Persia, later gave the treasures from Yahweh’s temple back to the Jewish people, a count revealed 5400 objects of gold and silver (Ezra 1:11).

How many times must Daniel have been grieved as he walked past the Esagila knowing that the vessels from the Temple of Yahweh in Jerusalem were being held in this pagan temple?

The Ishtar Gate

On the north side of the city, Nebuchadnezzar built the famed Ishtar Gate.  It was one of eight double-gates that served as entrances to the city and stood over 12m (38 feet) high.  An inscription discovered at the gate reads, “I dug out that town gate, I grounded its foundations facing the water strong with bitumen and baked bricks, and caused it to be finely set forth with baked bricks of blue enamel, on which wild oxen and dragons (sir-rus) were pictured.  I caused mighty cedars to be laid lengthways for its ceiling.  Door leaves of cedar covered with copper, thresholds and hinges of bronze I fitted into its gates.  Lusty (?) wild oxen of bronze and raging (?) dragons I placed at the thresholds.  The same town gateways I caused to be made glorious for the amazement of all peoples.”⁹ The gate was finished around 575 BC¹⁰, after Daniel had had already been living in the city for many years.  He no-doubt watched its construction and marveled at its beauty.

Today, a reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate can be seen at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.  It is made out of materials excavated by Robert Koldewey in the early 1900’s.

Summary

In Daniel 4:30, King Nebuchadnezzar boasts, “Is not this great Babylon, which I have built by my mighty power as a royal residence and for the glory of my majesty?”  The archaeological record affirms the massive building campaigns of Nebuchadnezzar.  Literally, millions of bricks were unearthed with his name inscribed on them.  The Nebuchadnezzar of the Bible and the Nebuchadnezzar of history are one and the same.  Similarly, the biblical city of Babylon that Daniel lived in is consistent with the city Babylon uncovered in archaeology.

A final note on the authenticity of the book of Daniel: some scholars today do not believe the book of Daniel was actually written its namesake who lived in the 6^th Century BC (as the book claims in 9:2 and 10:2), but rather it was written by someone hundreds of years after Daniel, during the time of the Maccabean revolt (ca. 165 BC) in order to encourage the rebels. This position is usually held by those who discount the supernatural elements within the book: the stunning accuracy of the prophecies made, and the miraculous events that occur.  However, there is good reason to believe that the book was written in the 6^th century and contains the words of the Hebrew exile, Daniel.  In a Bible and Spade article, Dr. Gerhard Hasel, points out that there are no fewer than eight manuscripts of Daniel among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including one dating to the 2^nd Century BC.  The early date of this manuscript and the fact that Daniel was already accepted as canonical by the Qumran community suggest a date that is much earlier than the second century BC.  The article concludes, “there can no longer be any possible reason for considering the book as a Maccabean product.”¹¹ Moreover, the knowledge of details of Babylonian culture and the courts of the kings suggest that it was written close to the time of the events described.  Finally, Jesus himself affirmed that the words in the book were spoken by the prophet Daniel (Matt. 24:15).

Title Photo Credit: Jastrow / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Endnotes

1 Henry W.F. Saggs, “Bablyon,” Encyclopædia Britannica, March 13, 2019. ; (Accessed Aug. 7, 2019)

2 “Koldeway at Babylon,” Current World Archaeology. January 25, 2013. (Accessed Aug. 7, 2019).

3  Robert Koldeway, The Excavations at Babylon.  (London : Macmillan and Co., 1914), 113.  Accessed online: ;(Accessed Aug. 7, 2019).

4 Neil MacFarquhar, “Hussein’s Babylon: A Beloved Atrocity” New York Times, August 19, 2003. ;(Accessed Aug. 7, 2019).

5 Clyde E. Fant and Mitchell G. Reddish, Lost Treasures of the Bible, (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 200.

6 Robert Koldeway, The Excavations at Babylon.  (London: Macmillan and Co., 1914), 211.  Accessed online: ;(Accessed Aug. 7, 2019).

7 Ibid, 210-211.

8 John C. Lennox, Against The Flow: The Inspiration of Daniel in an Age of Relativism. (Grand Rapids: Monarch Books, 2015), 33.

9 Robert Koldeway, The Excavations at Babylon.  (London: Macmillan and Co., 1914), 44.  Accessed online: ;(Accessed Aug. 7, 2019).

10 “Ishtar Gate,” Encyclopædia Britannica, March 7, 2016. ; (Accessed Aug. 7, 2019)

11 Gerhard Hasel, “New Light on the Book of Daniel from the Dead Sea Scrolls,” Associates for Biblical Research, July 31, 2012,  (Accessed Aug. 8, 2019).

Timothy was a young man from the Lycaonian city of Lystra whom the Apostle Paul mentored and took as a traveling companion on his Second Missionary Journey.  As his “true son in the faith” (1 Tim. 1:2), Timothy became an invaluable help to Paul in his ministry.  Sometime after his release from his first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28)¹ Paul sent Timothy to Ephesus to combat false doctrine that was being taught there (1 Tim. 1:3).

Ephesus was like the New York City of Asia Minor in the New Testament-era.  Pliny once called it, lumen Asiae, the Light of Asia.² In the first century, only Rome, Alexandria and Antioch of Syria surpassed Ephesus in importance. Having ministered there for three years (Acts 20:31), the Apostle Paul obviously felt a loving concern for its citizens, and sometime around 63 AD³, having dispatched Timothy to work with the church in Ephesus, he wrote the epistle of 1 Timothy.

In the first century, Ephesus was a major port city in Asia Minor.  However, by the medieval period silt from the Caster River had moved the coastline so far away from the city that it was eventually abandoned.  While devastating to the residents of Ephesus, it was a blessing to modern archaeologists, as it meant the ancient city had not been built over in modern times.⁴  For the past 150 years, excavations have unearthed the ancient city that Paul and Timothy ministered in.  Here are three things Timothy would have likely seen in Ephesus.

The Temple of Artemis

The worship of the goddess, Artemis (pictured in the title photo), dominated most facets of life in Ephesus during the time Timothy resided there.  In Greek mythology, Artemis was the virgin daughter of Zeus and Leto, and was originally known as the hunting goddess, although she later becoming associated with virginity and protection.  Over time, the goddess worshiped at Ephesus took on distinctly Ephesian qualities and eventually became know as “Artemis of the Ephesians.” The famed, Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, lay just outside the city.  Antipater of Sidon said that it surpassed the other wonders, and that when he saw the house of Artemis “those other marvels lost their brilliancy.”⁵ Artemis was more than just the primary deity worshiped in the city; much of the city’s immense wealth was tied to her cult. The treasury in the Temple of Artemis acted like a bank, where everyone, from the average citizen to rich businessmen, deposited their money for safekeeping. The Artemisian “bank” eventually controlled the finances for much of that part of the world.⁶

John Turtle Wood began excavating at Ephesus in 1863, and after six years of searching, he finally discovered the Temple of Artemis.  It was originally built by Croesus, the Lydian king of Sardis in 560 BC, and was rebuilt after it was burned by a fame-seeking madman in 356 BC.  It was the first monumental building ever made of marble and was, at one time, the largest building in the Greek world, measuring 377 feet by 197 feet in size.⁷ The temple featured a cella, or holy of holies, that was 70 feet wide and open to the sky.  A statue of the goddess, Artemis, stood behind a 20-foot square alter in the midst of the cella.⁸  The temple was sacked by the Goths in 263 AD and eventually destroyed by Justinian in the sixth century.  Today, only the remains of the foundations and a single column stand at the site, although some of the sculptured columns from the temple are in the British Museum.

It is noteworthy that the biblical descriptions of the worship of Artemis are affirmed by inscriptional evidence.  The name “Artemis of the Ephesians” – chanted for hours by the fanatical crowd in Acts 19:34 – is widely attested in ancient writings. Indeed, the most common surname of the goddess in Pausanias’s works is “Artemis of the Ephesians.⁹   Another inscription describes Ephesus as, “greatest metropolis of Asia, [and] the thrice-honored temple guardian of the venerable Ephesians.”¹⁰ It uses the same Greek word, neokoros, as the Bible does to describe Ephesus as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis.  The biblical description of the worship of Artemis in Ephesus during the time of Paul and Timothy is accurately reflected in the archaeological record.  Statues and references to statues of the goddess Artemis were all throughout the city.  Timothy could hardly have missed them.  One wonders if he was as distressed at the idol worship around him as his mentor had been in Athens (Acts 17:16).

The Marketplace

When Paul wrote to Timothy at Ephesus, he instructed him to “stop drinking only water, and use a little wine because of your stomach and your frequent illnesses” (1 Tim. 5:23). Timothy likely purchased some of his food and wine in the Marketplace – the commercial agora.

The commercial agora was located in the midst of the city near the Theater.  Excavations have revealed that it was originally built in the third century BC, but had been renovated by both Augustus and Nero.¹¹  The marketplace was square-shaped, with each side measuring 360 feet in length.  The north side of the agora was left open, while the other three sides were covered by a portico that had rows of shops within.  In the middle of the courtyard of the marketplace was a sundial and water-clock ¹²

Being a port city, much trade was done in Ephesus, and the commercial agora was a bustling place.  Scripture records that craftsmen who sold their wares there, like the Silversmiths, “brought in a lot of business” and received “a good income.” (Acts 19:24-25).  The archaeological record is filled with evidence of the wealth of many in Ephesus.¹³  When Paul wrote to Timothy at Ephesus he instructed him to “command those who are rich in this present world not to be arrogant nor to put their hope in wealth, which is so uncertain, but to put their hope in God, who richly provides us with everything for our enjoyment.” (1 Tm 6:17).

The Great Theater

If one structure dominated the landscape in ancient Ephesus it was the great theater.  Built in the Hellenistic era as a Greek theater, it was later converted to a Roman theater during the reigns of Claudius (ca. 41-54 AD) and Nero (54-68 AD).¹⁴ The theater could seat over 24000 people, with the topmost row of benches almost 100 feet in the air.  It was the largest theater in the ancient world and the only one whose stage had seven doors.¹⁵ An inscription was discovered in the theater, written in Latin and Greek, which named a Roman official who had provided a silver statue of Artemis to be displayed there during civic meetings.¹⁶

How many times did Timothy look to this structure and recall the chaotic events described in Acts 19, when a riotous crowd stormed the theater?

Summary

Archaeology allows us to understand the people and culture of ancient Ephesus.  This, in turn, provides an important contextual link with the New Testament.  The books of 1 and 2 Timothy were not written in a vacuum.  When the Apostle Paul left Timothy in Ephesus to work with the church, it was within a specific culture that we can now understand better as a result of 150 years of excavations.  For example, Paul warned Timothy about Alexander the coppersmith, who did much harm to him there (2 Tim. 4:14).  An inscription was unearthed in Ephesus that refers to the workplace of “Diogenes the coppersmith.”¹⁷  Another inscription, discovered in 1984, declared that it had been erected by the silversmiths of the city, testifying to their prominence.¹⁸ These illuminate the various trades in ancient Ephesus and, along with the structures mentioned above, help us understand the city in which Timothy lived and ministered.

Title Photo Credit: Carole Raddato / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 2.0

Endnotes

1 Eusebius 2.22.2: “Thus after he had made his defense it is said that the apostle was sent again upon the ministry of preaching, and that upon coming to the same city a second time he suffered martyrdom. In this imprisonment he wrote his second epistle to Timothy, in which he mentions his first defense and his impending death.”

2 Pliny H. N. v. 29, as quoted in “Ephesus,” The Latin Library,  ;(Accessed Aug. 13, 2019).

3 Daniel B. Wallace, “1 Timothy: Introduction, Argument, Outline.” Bible.org, June 28, 2004. ;(Accessed Aug. 13, 2019).

4 “Ephesus During the Time of Paul,” in NIV Archaeological Study Bible (ed. Walter C. Kaiser Jr and Duane Garrett; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 1968.

5 Antipater, Greek Anthology IX.58.

6 John W. Cowart. “Ephesus: A Wonder of the World.” ;(Accessed Aug. 14, 2019).

7  John McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament, (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1991), 256.

8 Howard F. Vos, Archaeology in Bible Lands (Chicago: Moody Press, 1977), 321.

9 Sandra Glahn, “The Identity of Artemis of the Ephesians in First-Century Ephesus.” Bibliotheca Sacra (172:687). 1753. 316–34.

10 James R. Edwards, “Archaeology Gives New Reality to Paul’s Ephesus Riot,” Biblical Archaeology Review, 42:4 (July/August 2016): 26.

11 Alfred Hoerth and John McRay, Bible Archaeology: An Exploration of the History and Culture of Early Civilizations, (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2005), 220.

12 “Commercial Agora,” Ephesus. ;(Accessed Aug. 15, 2019).

13 Bryan Windle, “Evidence from Ephesus for the Reliability of Scripture,” Bible and Spade Vo. 31, no. 3 (Summer 2018), 63-64. Online: ;(Accessed Aug. 15, 2019).

14 Alfred Hoerth and John McRay, Bible Archaeology: An Exploration of the History and Culture of Early Civilizations, (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2005), 221.

15 Ibid. 227.

16 John McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament, (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1991), 259.

17 Ibid. 259.

18 James R. Edwards, “Archaeology Gives New Reality to Paul’s Ephesus Riot,” Biblical Archaeology Review, 42:4 (July/August 2016): 26.

In 479 BC, the Persian King, Xerses,¹ returned to Susa after his failed invasion of Greece.² Susa was the winter capital of Persia, and it was here that he chose a new queen, having deposed his former queen, Vashti, for her refusal of his wishes (Est 1:10-22).  A young Hebrew woman named Esther was chosen to enter the king’s harem and then elevated to the status of chief wife (Est 2:17).

Critics today view the book of Esther as a fanciful court tale, likely written hundreds of years after the purported events.  Other scholars have pointed out the author’s intimate knowledge of Persian laws and customs, as well as the language of that period.  There are at least thirty people in the book whose names have Persian and Elamite origin, as well as twelve Persian loan-words, which would suggest a date of composition in or near the Persian era.³ Finally, the specific descriptions of the palace at Susa would indicate that the author was familiar with the layout.  French archaeologist Jean Perrot was the Director of Excavations at the palace of Darius/Xerxes at Susa for over a decade.  He concluded, “One today rereads with a renewed interest the book of Esther, whose detailed description of the interior disposition of the palace of Xerxes is now in excellent accord with archaeological reality.”⁴  Given its inclusion in the Septuagint, and the historical accuracy of the details contained within, it is logical to accept the book of Esther as an authentic record of Persian history in that period.

If the book that bears her name is historically accurate, and the evidence suggests that it is, then what might Esther have seen in her life as queen of Persia?  Here are three things she likely saw in Susa.

The Palace Friezes

When Xerxes’ father, King Darius, built the palace at Susa, he ordered the construction of colorful friezes depicting humans and mythological animals using a combination of glazed and unglazed bricks.⁵ When French archaeologist Marcel Dieulafoy excavated at Susa, he discovered these bricks lying all throughout the palace.  He was able to gather enough undamaged bricks to reconstruct the famous “Frieze of Archers,” which some believe depicts the famous Immortals – the elite company of 10000 Persian soldiers.⁶  Because the bricks were found all over the site, it has been suggested that these life-sized archers may have been a regular motif, positioned all throughout the palace.⁷  Other friezes discovered and reconstructed from the palace of Susa included images of griffon-lions and bearded sphinxes.  These palace friezes help us understand the artistic style of the day and the type of clothing worn by the Persians.  They also provide a vivid look into the world of Esther, as she no doubt passed friezes like these on a daily basis within the palace precinct.

The Bull Capitals

North of Xerxes’ palace was the Audience Hall, also known as the Court of Gardens (Est 1:5).  It was a large area, covering 10000 square meters, and had 36 columns distributed throughout it.  These fluted stone columns stood 20 meters high and were topped with capitals in the shape of bulls.⁸  The magnificent hall was surrounded on three sides with porticos and in the center, as one enters from the main entrance to the north, was a raised base that was likely where the king himself would sit.⁹  It was in this Audience Hall that Xerxes entertained his guests at the banquet described in first chapter of the book of Esther.¹⁰  While she herself was not at that particular banquet, she may have been at others.  Today, several shattered bull capitals and broken columns lie strewn around the remains of the Audience Hall.  A beautiful bull capital, taken to France during the early excavations of Susa, is on display at the Louvre.

The Inner Courtyard and Throne Room

In Esther 5:1 we read, “On the third day Esther put on her royal robes and stood in the inner courtyard of the king’s house, opposite the king’s house while the king was sitting on his royal throne in the royal house opposite the entrance.”  She bravely entered the throne room, uninvited, to invite the king to a banquet where she intended to plead for salvation for her people, the Jews (Est 7:3-6).

Excavations at the palace in Susa have revealed the very spot where these events took place.  The Palace had three courtyards: the large outer courtyard, a middle courtyard, and the inner courtyard.  South of the inner courtyard were the king’s quarters and his throne room.  To approach the king, one had to pass from the outer courtyard, though a double guardhouse into the middle courtyard, and then into the inner courtyard.¹¹ Here, one makes a left-hand turn, and proceeds through the doors into the throne room of the king.  This is the journey that Esther herself would have taken.

Summary

Archaeology helps give a face to facts and a context to culture.  By journeying to the places that events actually took place we can better understand the biblical world.  In many cases, the findings amassed over years of careful excavation affirm numerous details in the accounts written in the pages of Scripture.  The Persian life that Esther lived in Susa is accurately reflected in the book of the Bible that bears her name, and understanding Persian history, as revealed by archaeology, in turn helps us to contextualize the ancient text.

Title Photo Credit:  youngrobv / Flickr

Endnotes:

1 Xerxes is the Greek form of this king’s name. In Old Persian the king’s name was Khshayarsha, or Ahsiarsu in Akkadian and Ahasuerus in Hebrew.  The sequence of Persian kings in Ezra 4:5-7 makes it clear that Ahasuerus was the son of Darius and the predecessor to Artaxerxes: thus, the Xerxes of history and the and Ahasuerus of the book of Esther are one and the same.

2 Herodotus, 9.108

3 Edwin M. Yamauchi, Persia and the Bible. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1990), 237.

4 “Shushan The Citadel With Bible In Hand,” Bible Reading Archaeology. September 20, 2018. (Accessed Aug. 22, 2019).

5 Shahrohk Razmjou, Mike S. Tite, A. J. Shortland, Marion Jung, and Andreas Hauptmann, “Glazed Bricks in the Achaemenid Period,” 2004, p. 384. ;(Accessed Aug. 23, 2019).

6 “Frieze of Archers,” Louvre Museum, ;(Accessed Aug. 23, 2019).

7 Ibid.

8 Edwin M. Yamauchi, Persia and the Bible. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1990), 293.

9 Jona Lendering, “Susa, Apadana,” Livius.org. ;(Accessed Aug. 23, 2019).

10 Todd Bolen, “Susa,” BiblePlaces.com. ;(Accessed Aug. 23, 2019).

11 Todd Bolen, “Site-Seeing: Surprising Susa,” Biblical Archaeology Review, 45:2 (March/April 2019): 18.