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2. Cuneiform Tablets from 1800 B.C. Translate Canaanite Phrases into Akkadian

An article published in the French journal, Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale, recently translated two cuneiform tablets from Iraq dating to 1800 BC, demonstrating that they contain a translation of common words and phrases, from Canaanite into Akkadian. While we know of only a few inscriptions in ancient Canaanite, a language that there is an incomplete knowledge of, Akkadian is well-known to scholars. These tablets act like a Canaanite-Akkadian dictionary, providing translations of phrases related to meeting people, addressing a king, and preparing food. For example, the Haaretz article notes that the phrase “Fetch the table” is translated as “Bring us bread,” converting the idiom from one language to the other. This discovery will add a great deal to the knowledge of ancient Canaanite and various related Semitic languages. Moreover, it demonstrates that by the second millennium BC, a language closely resembling Hebrew was in common use.

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1. New Study of Mesha Stele (Moabite Stone) Affirms the Inscription Includes the Phrase “House of David”

André Lemaire and Jean-Philippe Delorme recently published an article in Biblical Archaeology Review (Winter 2022) summarizing new evidence supporting the claim that the Mesha Stele (Moabite Stone) refers to Beit David, the “House of David.” While Lemaire first suggested the possibility 30 years ago, recent developments in photography have provided new images to analyze. In 2015, a group of researchers from the University of Southern California used Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI), combining multiple, high-resolutions photos taken from different angles into a single 3D image. In 2018, a team from the Louvre Museum took new photos by shining a light through the original squeeze of the damaged part of the stele. Since the phrase “House of David” occurs in a section that covers both the original stone inscription and damaged part that remains only through the squeeze that was taken, both of the new developments in photography have been helpful. These images establish that, of five letters in btdwd, the first, third, fourth, and fifth have been confirmed. Only the second letter is somewhat unclear, but is likely a taw based on the context. Furthermore, the new photographs clearly establish that there are word dividers in the form of dots that occur before and after these letters, implying it is a single phrase. In their article Lemaire and Delorme conclude that “the new photographs clearly establish the presence of the first dalet and confirm the last dalet, while only the letter taw remains somewhat unclear. Given this and the presence of word dividers before and after this five-letter unit, we believe the reading btdwd is confirmed once and for all” (“Mesha’s Stele and the House of David,” BAR 48:4, Winter 2022, pg. 40). The Mesha Stele is a victory monument set up by the Moabite king, Mesha, recording events during his reign, including his rebellion against Israelite subjection (2 Kings 3). It is one of the top ten discoveries in biblical archaeology related to the Old Testament.

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Top Three Reports in Biblical Archaeology – February 2023

Each month multiple stories from the world of biblical archaeology hit the news. This month’s top three reports in biblical archaeology include discoveries from Egypt, Israel and Iraq.

3. Egyptian Embalming Workshop Discovered at Saqqara

According to a new article in the journal Nature, a group of researchers has analyzed the residue of embalming ingredients from vessels found in an embalming workshop discovered at Saqqara. The workshop was found underground near the pyramid of Unas and was initially excavated in 2016. Dating to the 26th Dynasty (ca. 664–525 BC), the workshop was in excellent condition, with approximately 100 vessels surviving, many of which were labeled with their contents and information regarding their uses, delineating which substances were for washing the body, reducing odor, softening the skin, etc. The researchers performed chemical analysis on the residues in the vessels and discovered that some of the substances came from as far away as the eastern Mediterranean and Asian or African rainforests. This discovery will help scholars understand the process of embalming in the seventh century BC and how it is different from embalming practices in earlier periods of Egyptian history. The Bible records that both Jacob (Gn 50:2) and Joseph (Gn 50:26) were embalmed when they died.

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2. Sumerian Temple and Palace Unearthed in Iraq

A group of archaeologists from the Girsu Project have unearthed an ancient Sumerian palace and temple in southeastern Iraq. The structures were discovered using aerial remote sensing and are over 4,500 years old. More than 200 cuneiform tablets, determined to be administrative documents, were found within the mud-brick palace. The Sumerians are generally credited with inventing cuneiform as a writing script. It appears that the temple complex was dedicated to the Sumerian god Ningirsu, after whom the city of Girsu was named. These discoveries will help scholars understand the early Sumerian culture in greater detail. To learn more about the Sumerians and their biblical connection, read Dr. Charles Aling’s article “Cultural Change and the Confusion of Language in Ancient Sumer” from the Winter 2004 issue of Bible and Spade (see link below).

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BONUS ARTICLE ON SUMERIANS: 

1. Gold Bead from the Roman Era Discovered in Jerusalem

A volunteer working at the Emek Tzurim National Park sifting site recently found a 1,600-year-old gold bead in material from the nearby Pilgrimage Road excavations. The earth in which the bead was found came from an impressive Roman building that was 25 meters long, had mosaic floors, and clearly belonged to the elite of Jerusalem. The bead itself is made of ten tiny balls of gold that were attached to each other in the shape of a ring. This method of construction is known from ancient Mesopotamia. The bead was likely once part of a necklace or bracelet and may have been accidentally lost when the jewelry broke. Gold artifacts are rare finds, making this an important discovery.

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Top Three Reports in Biblical Archaeology – March 2023

In the news this past moth were two legitimate discoveries and one that was quickly declared not authentic. Here were the top three reports in biblical archaeology in March 2023.

3. Recently Discovered Hidden Chamber Photographed in the Great Pyramid at Giza

Scientists from the Technical University of Munich have conclusively demonstrated the existence of a hidden chamber in the Great Pyramid in Egypt, which was constructed for Khufu (Greek: Cheops) around 4,500 years ago. In 2016, scans suggested that a hidden chamber existed near the chevron blocks above the entrance. Recently, the team from Munich was able to use a crack between two blocks to insert a tube. This allowed them to run an endoscopic camera through and photograph the chamber. The photos revealed a room that was larger than anticipated, exceeding the original estimate of five meters in length. There was no evidence of human presence in the room, and the researchers believe it is the first time humans have seen the inside of this chamber since the pyramid was constructed. The purpose of the chamber is not yet known, nor what lies behind the back wall of the room. According to a literal understanding of biblical chronology, the Great Pyramid of Khufu had been standing for hundreds of years by the time Abraham went to Egypt (Gn 12:10).

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2. Oldest Bronze Fishhook Unearthed at Ashkelon

The discovery of one of the world’s oldest metal fishhooks was recently announced by the Israel Antiquities Authority. The bronze hook is overly large, measuring 2.6 inches (6.5 cm) long by 1.6 inches (4 cm) wide. The discovery was made in 2018 during preparations for the construction of a new neighborhood at Ashkelon. The hook was unearthed in the remains of a Chalcolithic house, allowing archaeologists to positively date the artifact. Given its size, the hook is believed to have been used by ancient fishermen in the coastal villae to fish for sharks and/or other large fish. The artifact will be put on display for the first time at the upcoming 48th Archaeological Congress in Israel. In the Bible fishing is most often associated with the disciples in the New Testament. However, fishing is alluded to in the Old Testament as well, both with the use of nets (Ez 47:10) and fishhooks (Am 4:2).

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1. Potsherd Inscribed with the Name of Darius I Found at Lachish Is Not Authentic

A hiker exploring at Tel Lachish National Park discovered a 2,500-year-old potsherd inscribed with the name of the Persian king Darius I. The Aramaic inscription read, “Year 24 of Darius,” which dated it to 498 BC, when Judah was under Persian control in the region known as “Beyond the River” (Ezra 4:20). The artifact was initially authenticated by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) and announced with great fanfare. However, a couple days later, the officials with the IAA walked back the claim and declared that the artifact was not authentic. After the initial news reports, an Aramaic expert who had participated in excavations at Lachish in August 2022 contacted the IAA to inform them that she had made the inscription on a potsherd to demonstrate to her students how this was done in the past. Unfortunately, she had accidentally left it at the site, where it was found by the hiker. The IAA regrets the mistake and will be instituting new policies and procedures for archaeological excavations in Israel to avoid this type of situation in the future.

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RETRATCTION: 

Top Three Reports in Biblical Archaeology – April 2023

Over the past month several important studies were published related to the world of the Bible. Here were the top three reports in biblical archaeology in April 2023.

3. Severed Hands Discovered in Egypt are Evidence of Trophy Taking

A new study in the journal Scientific Reports concludes that 12 severed hands discovered in 2011 at Tell el-Dab’a (the site of the ancient Hyksos capital of Avaris) constitute the first bioarchaeological evidence of the gruesome “trophy taking” practice of amputating the right hands of defeated enemies. Ancient reliefs and inscriptions from Egypt describe a ceremony in which soldiers would present the severed right hands of enemies to Pharaoh in order to be rewarded. The hands from Tell el-Dab’a were discovered buried, palms facing down, in several pits within the courtyard of a Hyksos palace that may have been in use from ca. 1640 to 1530 BC. Examination of the hands revealed that they were from 11 adult males and one female, that they were likely buried within 24 to 48 hours after death, and that the tendons and ligaments held the bones together. The authors of the study concludes that the discovery supports the reality of the ancient Egyptian ‘gold of honor’ ceremony where severed hands would be offered to the pharaoh. The practice of presenting severed body parts to the king for reward is referred to in 1 Samuel 18:27: “David arose and went, along with his men, and killed two hundred of the Philistines. And David brought their foreskins, which were given in full number to the king, that he might become the king’s son-in-law. And Saul gave him his daughter Michal for a wife” (ESV).

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2. New Study Ties the Ophel Pithos Inscription to the Queen of Sheba

In a new study in the Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology, Dr. Daniel Vainstub proposes that the Ophel pithos inscription is written in Ancient South Arabian script and is connected with the account of the Queen of Sheba’s visit to Jerusalem in the days of Solomon (1 Kings 10:1–13). The inscription was discovered in 2012 during the Ophel excavations led by Dr. Eilat Mazar, and has been dated to the tenth century BC. Most epigraphers believe the inscription is written in an ancient Canaanite script, although establishing a coherent translation has proved difficult. Vainstub believes that the inscription is not Canaanite, but rather comes from the region that was once the kingdom of Sheba. According to his translation, it refers to ladanum, an aromatic resin that was an ingredient in the incense used in Israelite worship (Ex 30:34–38). Because the pithos bearing the inscription was made of clay that originated in Jerusalem, Vainstub suggests that a scribe from Sheba who was fluent in Ancient South Arabian oversaw the trade in spices between the two kingdoms.

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ORIGINAL JOURNAL ARTICLE: 

1. Third-Century Syriac Translation of the Gospel of Matthew Found

A scholar from the Austrian Academy of Sciences has discovered a palimpsest fragment of a third-century Syriac translation of the Gospel of Mathew in the Vatican Library. The Syriac Gospel of Matthew was erased over 1,300 years ago by a scribe who reused the parchment for another work. In a study published in the journal, New Testament Studies, Grigory Kessel reports that the manuscript was discovered while researchers were using ultraviolet light to reveal the hidden text that had been erased. In this case, it turned out to be a double palimpsest, as text had been erased twice to make room for new writing, resulting in three layers of text. The Syriac Gospel of Matthew was written on the parchment sometime in the third century but was erased in the sixth century so that a Greek work called the Apophthegmata Patrum could be recorded. Finally, this was erased in the tenth century  and the parchment was reused to write a collection of Georgian hymns. This manuscript is only the fourth known textual witness to the Old Syriac translation of the Gospels discovered to date.

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ORIGINAL JOURNAL ARTICLE: 

Top Three Reports in Biblical Archaeology – May 2023

NOTE: Due to my trip to Israel to dig at Shiloh with the Associate for Biblical Research, I’m a little late getting my end-of-month blog on the top news stories posted. Here were the top three reports in biblical archaeology from May 2023.

3.  Archaeological Park to Be Developed at Ancient Israelite Capital City of Samaria

The Israeli government has announced the approval of an $8.8 million budget to develop an archaeological park at Samaria (Sebastia), located a few kilometers northwest of the city of Nablus. Samaria became the capital of the Northern Kingdom of Israel when it was built by King Omri in the ninth century BC. First Kings 16:24 says that Omri “bought the hill of Samaria from Shemer for two talents of silver, and he fortified the hill and called the name of the city that he built Samaria, after the name of Shemer, the owner of the hill” (ESV). Until now, the site has lain largely undeveloped. The new funds will be used to establish a tourist center, build new roads, map unexcavated areas, and prevent illegal activity at the site.

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2.  Scholars Use AI to Translate Akkadian Cuneiform into English

A team of researchers from Tel Aviv University and Ariel University has developed an artificial intelligence model that translates the text of Akkadian cuneiform tablets into English. They presented their work in a recent article entitled, “Translating Akkadian to English with Neural Machine Translation” in the journal, PNAS Nexus. The scholars used natural language processing methods (NLP) to automatically translate the Akkadian texts using two methods: converting the cuneiform Unicode glyphs directly to English and converting Unicode glyphs to a Latin transliteration first, then to English. Both methods achieved good results for sentences that were short or medium-length sentences (118 characters or less), but the method using the Latin transliteration first and was the most accurate. The AI model may speed up the translation of cuneiform texts and would be best used as part of a human-machine collaboration in which Assyriologists correct the initial computer translations.

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1.  The Academic, Peer-Reviewed Article on the Mt. Ebal Curse Tablet Published

The academic, peer-reviewed article, “’You Are Cursed by the God YHW:’” An Early Hebrew Inscription from Mt. Ebal,” was recently published in the journal, Heritage Science, by a team of scholars including ABR’s Dr. Scott Stripling. The article presents the findings of their study of the lead curse tablet that was discovered by resifting material from Adam Zertal’s 1980’s excavations of the altar on Mt. Ebal. The inscription from the interior of the tablet was made visible through X-ray computed tomography and advanced data processing. The tomographic scans revealed 48 letters of 14 word sets in proto-alphabetic (= Proto–Hebrew) script occurring in a chiastic structure. The text reads:

You are cursed by the god yhw, cursed.

You will die, cursed—cursed, you will surely die.

Cursed you are by yhw—cursed (p. 7, see PDF version of the article in the link below).

The authors of the article note that a “metallurgical analysis of the tablet’s lead by Professor Naama

Yahalom-Mack at Hebrew University revealed that it derived from a mine in the Aegean (Lavrion, Greece), which was known to be in use in the Late Bronze Age” (p. 3). The fact that Late Bronze Age pottery was also found in the material that came from the altar, and the detailed analysis of the inscription itself all indicate that the lead tablet likely dates tot he Late Bronze Age II (ca. 1400–1200 BC) but to no later than ca. 1250 BC.

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BONUS ARTICLE: Ten Thoughts on the Lead Tablet

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